| 词条 | Sansei | ||||||||||||
| 释义 |
The character and uniqueness of the sansei is recognized in its social history.[4] HistoryAlthough the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants settled in Mexico in 1897,[5] the four largest populations of Japanese and descendants of Japanese immigrants live in Brazil, the United States, Canada and Peru. Brazilian Sansei{{main|Japanese Brazilians}}Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside Japan, numbering an estimate of more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity),[6] more than that of the 1.2 million in the United States.[7] The Sansei Japanese Brazilians are an important part of that ethnic minority in that South American nation.[8] American Sansei{{main|Japanese Americans}}The majority of American Sansei were born during the Baby Boom after the end of World War II; but older Sansei who were living in the western United States during WWII were forcibly interned with their parents (Nisei) and grandparents (Issei) after Executive Order 9066 was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from large parts of the Western states. The Sansei were forceful activists in the redress movement, which resulted in an official apology to the internees.[9] In some senses, the Sansei seem to feel they are caught in a dilemma between their "quiet" Nisei parents and their other identity model of "verbal" Americans.[10] In the United States, a representative Sansei is General Eric Shinseki (born November 28, 1942), the 34th Chief of Staff of the United States Army (1999–2003) and former United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs. He is the first Asian American in U.S. history to be a four-star general, and the first to lead one of the four U.S. military services.[11] Canadian Sansei{{main|Japanese Canadians}}Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.[12] Peruvian Sansei{{main|Japanese Peruvians}}Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the Sansei Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest number. Cultural profileGenerationsJapanese-Americans and Japanese-Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the Japanese numbers corresponding to the generation with the Japanese word for generation (sei 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like Issei, Nisei and Sansei which describe the first, second and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called Yonsei (四世) and the fifth is called Gosei (五世). The Issei, Nisei and Sansei generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, religious belief and practice and other matters.[13] The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns.[12] The term Nikkei (日系) was coined by a multinational group of sociologists and encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations.[14] The collective memory of the Issei and older Nisei was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.[15] In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives.
In North America since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The Sansei, their parents, their grandparents, and their children are changing the way they look at themselves and their pattern of accommodation to the non-Japanese majority.[17] There are currently just over one hundred thousand British Japanese, mostly in London; but unlike other Nikkei communities elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as Issei, Nisei or Sansei.[18] SanseiThe third generation of immigrants, born in the United States or Canada to parents born in the United States or Canada, is called Sansei (三世). Children born to the Nisei were generally born after 1945. They speak English as their first language and are completely acculturized in the contexts of Canadian or American society. They tend to identify with Canadian or American values, norms and expectations. Few speak Japanese and most tend to express their identity as Canadian or American rather than Japanese. Among the Sansei there is an overwhelming percentage of marriages to persons of non-Japanese ancestry.[15] AgingThe kanreki (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the Issei and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of Nisei and a few Sansei. Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older.[19] History{{main|Japanese diaspora|Japanese American history}}Internment and redress{{main|Japanese American internment|Japanese American redress and court cases|Japanese Canadian internment}}Some responded to internment with lawsuits and political action; and for others, poetry became an unplanned consequence: With new hope. We build new lives. Why complain when it rains? This is what it means to be free. -- Lawson Fusao Inada, Japanese American Historical Plaza, Portland, Oregon.[20] Life under United States policies before and after World War II{{main|Japanese American life before World War II|Japanese American life after World War II}}Politics{{See also|Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States}}The sansei became known as the "activist generation"[21] because of their large hand in the redress movement and individuals that have become a part of the American mainstream political landscape. Notable individuals{{see also|List of Japanese Americans}}The numbers of sansei who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the Nikkei. Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by sansei from North America, the Latin American member countries of the Pan American Nikkei Association (PANA) include Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, in addition to the English-speaking United States and Canada.[22] {{dynamic list}}{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}
See also{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
}} Notes1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sansei|title=Definition of SANSEI|author=|date=|website=www.merriam-webster.com|accessdate=21 April 2018}} 2. ^In Japanese counting, "one, two, three, four" is "ichi, ni, san, yon"—see Japanese numerals 3. ^Nomura, Gail M. (1998). "Japanese American Women," in {{Google books|d9lhBw8t410C|The Reader's Companion to U.S. Women's History (Mankiller, Barbara Smith, ed.), pp. 288-290.|page=288}} 4. ^Numrich, Paul David. (2008). North [https://books.google.com/books?id=sAy1s626lE0C&pg=PA127&lpg=PA110&dq= American Buddhists in Social Context, p. 110]. 5. ^Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), Japan-Mexico Relations; retrieved 2011-05-17 6. ^MOFA, "Japan-Brazil Relations"; retrieved 2011-05-17 7. ^US Census, "Selected Population Profile in the United States; Japanese alone or in any combination," 2005; retrieved 2011-05-17 8. ^Simons, Marlise. [https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/08/world/japanese-gone-brazilian-unhurried-workaholics.html "Japanese Gone Brazilian: Unhurried Workaholics,"] New York Times. May 8, 1988; retrieved 2011-05-17 9. ^Sowell, Thomas. (1981). [https://books.google.com/books?id=m60q57zoReUC&pg=PA176&dq=sansei&lr=&sig=ACfU3U2GHKKafchXxMXEcYSTGJ3D6n5qTw Ethnic America: A History, p. 176.] 10. ^Miyoshi, Nobu. (1978). "Identity Crisis of the Sansei and the Concentration Camp," Sansei Legacy Project (NIMH Grant No. 1 R13 MH25655-01); retrieved 2011-05-17 11. ^Zweigenhaft, Richard L. et al. (2006). {{Google books|0V0gO8tArK8C|Diversity in the Power Elite: How it Happened, why it Matters, pp. 191-192|page=191}}; US Army, Center of Military History, Eric Ken Shinksei; retrieved 2011-05-17 12. ^1 McLellan, Janet. (1999). {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto, p. 36|page=36}}; Ikawa, Fumiko. [https://www.jstor.org/pss/667278 "Reviews: Umi o Watatta Nippon no Mura by Masao Gamo and "Steveston Monogatari: Sekai no Naka no Nipponjin" by Kazuko Tsurumi,] American Anthropologist (US). New Series, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Feb., 1963), pp. 152-156; retrieved 2011-05-17 13. ^McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 59.|page=59}} 14. ^Japanese American National Museum, "What is Nikkei?" retrieved 2011-05-17 15. ^1 McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 37.|page=37}} 16. ^Ikezoe-Halevi, Jean. "Voices of Chicago: Day of Remembrance 2006," Discover Nikkei (US). October 31, 2006. 17. ^McLellan, {{Google books|NMm024458s4C|p. 68.|page=68}} 18. ^Itoh, Keiko. (2001). {{Google books|VBijCPLvWyUC|The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration, p. 7.|page=7}} 19. ^Doi, Mary L. "A Transformation of Ritual: The Nisei 60th Birthday." Journal Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology. Vol. 6, No. 2 (April, 1991); retrieved 2011-05-17 20. ^PBS: [https://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/entertainment/poetry/profiles/poet_inada.html "Oregon Laureate Reflects on Japanese Internment,"] NewsHour. October 3, 2008; retrieved 2011-05-17 21. ^US Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi website: "Japantown Represents More than 100 Years of a Unique Immigrant Experience," inserted into the Congressional Record to commemorate the 100th anniversary of San Francisco's Japantown. September 19, 2006; excerpt, "... the emergence of the activist third generation — the Sansei — who are now "baby boomers" and the parents and grandparents of the fourth and fifth generations — the Yonsei and Gosei"; retrieved 2011-05-17 22. ^National Association of Japanese Canadians: Pan American Nikkei Association {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218195725/http://www.najc.ca/thenandnow/relations_pana.php |date=2009-02-18 }} (PANA); retrieved 2011-05-17 23. ^Discover Nikkei: [https://archive.is/20120731082159/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama Francis Fukuyama bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17 24. ^Zweigenhaft, {{Google books|0V0gO8tArK8C|p. 182.|page=182}} 25. ^DiscoverNikkei: Mike Honda bio {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203213647/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Mike_Honda |date=2008-12-03 }}; retrieved 2011-05-17 26. ^DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.is/20120730015445/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Robert_T._Matsui Robert Matsui bio]; retrieved 2011-05-17 27. ^Minami, Dale. (2005). University of Washington Law School, Commencement Address; retrieved 2011-05-17 28. ^DiscoverNikkei: [https://archive.is/20120803115026/http://www.discovernikkei.org/wiki/Patsy_Takemoto_Mink Mink bio]; Nomura, {{Google books|d9lhBw8t410C|pp. 288-290.|page=288}}; retrieved 2011-05-17 29. ^Zia, Helen et al. (1995). "Kent Nagano" in [https://books.google.com/books?id=dZsYAAAAIAAJ&q=kent+nagano&dq=kent+nagano&lr=&pgis=1 Notable Asian Americans, p. 273.] 30. ^Kim, Esther. (2006). {{Google books|Rj2W7MrqgRUC|A History of Asian American Theatre, p. 162.|page=162}} 31. ^Willingham, Mandy. "A-bomb Legacy Fading: Steven Okazaki films hibakusha stories for future generations," Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus (US). April 16, 2006, citing Japan Times, April 15, 2006; Kamiya, Gary. [https://books.google.com/books?id=AecDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=Steven+Okazaki+sansei&source=bl&ots=s5GhJ2Twjt&sig=Zm_9Zjfnvk0uW3E_Cm4Dd10C-aY&hl=en&ei=HIvSTeHGBOnL0QHk-bXYCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CEYQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=Steven%20Okazaki%20sansei&f=false "With a Japanese Heart,"] Mother Jones Magazine (US). Sept-Oct 1990, p. 62; retrieved 2011-05-17 32. ^Murase, Kenji. "Ellison Onizuka: the First Nikkei Astronaut," Nikkei Heritage (US). Vol. XI, No. 4, Fall 1999; retrieved 2011-05-17 33. ^Franke-Ruta, Garance. "Rouse hailed as first Asian American chief of staff," {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003212031/http://www.whorunsgov.com/politerati/uncategorized/rouse-hailed-as-first-asian-american-chief-of-staff/ |date=2010-10-03 }} Washington Post (US). OCtober 1, 2010; retrieved 2011-05-17 34. ^Nakagawa, Kerry Yo. [https://books.google.com/books?id=rUklAQAAIAAJ&q=lenn+sakata&dq=lenn+sakata&hl=en&ei=js0cTZCDBISclgf1vqTYCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ "Through a Diamond: 100 years of Japanese American Baseball, p. 123.] 35. ^{{cite book |title=On Gratitude: Sheryl Crow, Jeff Bridges, Alicia Keys, Daryl Hall, Ray Bradbury, Anna Kendrick, B.B. King, Elmore Leonard, Deepak Chopra, and 42 More Celebrities Share What They're Most Thankful For |first=Todd Aaron |last=Jensen |publisher=F+W Media, Inc. |year=2010 |isbn= 9781440508929|page=224 |accessdate=October 26, 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=PkRKuy5gYrkC&pg=PT224&dq=Mike+Shinoda+third+generation+Japanese}} 36. ^{{cite web|author=Marcello|url=http://japancinema.net/2012/02/01/creative-spotlight-episode-93-mike-shinoda/|title=Creative Spotlight: Episode #93 – Mike Shinoda Interview|date=February 1, 2012|publisher=japancinema.net|accessdate=October 27, 2012}} 37. ^Obata, Hiroshi. 両祖父母は広島出身 ("Shinseki: both grandparents are from Hiroshima"). Hiroshima Peace Media (Japan). January 30, 2009; retrieved 2011-05-17 38. ^{{cite web|title=In Depth with Ronald Takaki|url=http://www.c-span.org/video/?284353-1/depth-ronald-takaki|publisher=C-SPAN|accessdate=19 April 2015|date=28 February 2009}} 39. ^Goad, Ben. "Congress District 41: Takano beats Tavaglione in nationally watched race," Press-Enterprise(Riverside, California). November 6, 2012; retrieved 2012-12-2. 40. ^Seigel, Shizue. "Dan Tani: NASA’s Newest Japanese American Astronaut," Nikkei Heritage (US). Vol. XI, No. 4, Fall 1999; retrieved 2011-05-17 References
Further reading
External links{{external links|date=December 2013}}
4 : Japanese words and phrases|Japanese diaspora|Japanese-American history|Cultural generations |
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