“Stéphane Courtois”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Stéphane Courtois (born 25 November 1947) is a French historian and university professor, a Director of research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), Professor at the Catholic Institute of Higher Studies (ICES) in La Roche-sur-Yon, and Director of a collection specialized in the history of communist movements and regimes.

Courtois is a research director at the French National Centre for Scientific Research, in the Géode (group of study and observation of democracy) at Paris West University Nanterre La Défense, as well as a Professor at the Catholic Institute of Higher Studies – ICES. He is editor of the journal Communisme, which he cofounded with Annie Kriegel in 1982, and part of the Cercle de l'Oratoire think tank.

As a student, from 1968 to 1971, Courtois was a Maoist, but he later became a strong supporter of democracy, pluralism, human rights, and the rule of law.^[4]

Maoist activism (1968–1971)

He was an activist in the Maoist Marxist–Leninist organization Vive communism from 1968 to 1971, which changed its name in 1969 to Vive la Revolution with Roland Castro. At this time he directed the organisation's bookstore at rue Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire in Paris. He describes himself as having been "anarcho-Maoist," but many "repented" of the extreme left and later became supporters of democracy and multi-party democracy and often anti-communists.^[5]

Communist Party at war and Communisme journal

Having taken legal studies and history, he became known in 1980 with the publication of his thesis, the PCF at war under the direction of Annie Kriegel. It was with her that he founded in 1982 the journal Communisme to bring together anticommunist specialists on French communism. After the death of Kriegel, he became the main organiser of the magazine. He was appointed Director of Research at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), where he was responsible for the "Group observations and studies of democracy" (GEODE). That period at Communisme was seen as an extremely rich period for research of all kinds, the crucible of important work published in the 1980s.^[6]

Visits to archives of the Comintern in Moscow (1992–1994)

Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and of the "Iron Curtain", the Soviet Union collapsed in December 1991 following the communist regimes in the countries of Eastern Europe, the archives of the Comintern were opened not only to Russian historians but also to western researchers.

The opening represented an opportunity for him to access unpublished sources to rewrite the history of communism, which, until then, had been impregnated by the propaganda of Soviet-style regimes{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}, countered only by unverifiable assertions of their opponents. Courtois described the historiographical turning point as a "true revolution in documentation".^[7]^[7]

For example, a historical study of the PCF had been made for decades not on genuine archival documents but on the basis of stories, such as memoirs published by PCF members, including Jacques Duclos, because the original PCF records were kept not at party headquarters in Paris, but in Moscow, in accordance with the central clauses governing their admission to the Comintern (conditions of admission to the Third International).

In 2006, Courtois wrote a book entitled Communism in France: The revolution in documentation and revised historiography.

He made his first visit to the archives of the Comintern in Moscow in September 1992. Later he made three more visits, the last in December 1994. In 2009, at a conference, Stéphane Courtois said: "I did not go to promote The Black Book of Communism in Russia.... In any case, I do not go back again for quite some time.... I quickly became aware that I was under constant surveillance in the archives".^[9]

Courtois gleaned some spectacular information from the archives and in deliberately provoking controversy, which led in the eyes of some at the Communisme journal to a divisive position with the complementary scientific researches there. Since 1993, a large part of the editorial board of Communisme left the journal.^[6]

Orientation of works after publication of The Black Book

If the historiographic production of Courtois before 1995 mainly concerned the PCF, afterward, it focused more on the Comintern and the history of communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In the Black Book, he was concerned with the criminal aspects of the actions of the Comintern. In his book on Eugen Fried, which he cowrote with Annie Kriegel in 1997, the emphasis was more on the control by the Comintern on the national communist parties and the mass anti-fascist organizations such as Amsterdam-Pleyel, Secours Rouge, and the Universal Gathering for peace. In the foreword of Eugen Fried, he indicated that the project initiated in 1984–1985 had to be suspended in 1991 when the archives of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union were transferred to the State Archives of the Republic of Russia. "In 1992, Annie Kriegel and Stéphane Courtois were there in Moscow. They made several trips to the Russian capital and brought back thousands of pages on microfilm...."^[8]

In a communication to the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, Courtois defended the thesis that Stalin was perfectly representative of the Soviet regime introduced in the 1917 Revolution led by Lenin:

"The fact remains that in the foundation phase of the system, from 1917 to 1953, it was the ideology that dictated the conduct of Lenin and then of Stalin.... Stalin was an authentic Bolshevik — pupil of the school of Leninism.... Stalin was not the obscure apparatchik described by Trotsky, but one of the direct collaborators of Lenin and among the most appreciated for his unwavering support of the leader, his sense of discipline, his composure and exceptional firmness of character, his determination, and his total lack of scruples or compassion in his actions".^[9]

After the publication of Eugen Fried, Courtois led many joint editorial projects, such as A clean sweep From the past! History and Memory of Communism in Europe (2002), which came at the end of the Black Book of Communism and provided additions to the book, mostly written by foreign authors, and the Dictionary of Communism (2007). In 2008, he contributed to the Black Book of the French Revolution, in a chapter devoted to the relationship between Jacobinism and Bolshevism.

In 2009, he returned again to the question of communism with the book Communism and totalitarianism, which was a collection of a series of his articles on the subject.

He has also expanded his work to include all totalitarian regimes. He organises many international conferences on this theme and maintains a collection of the Éditions du Seuil and the Éditions du Rocher.

Major works

Methodological influences

Alumnus of Kriegel, Courtois said that his book Communism and Totalitarianism (2009) is built on the model of several books by her, including The Bread and the Roses: foundations for a history of socialism (1968) and French communism in the mirror (1974).^[7] The methodology, developed by her and adopted by him, consisted of an accumulation of stages of thought of the researcher in the form of texts that are grouped by topic and published regularly.^[7]

Taking up the concept of a "history workshop "developed by the historian François Furet, in his eponymous book published in 1982, Stéphane Courtois said that "the serious historian is an artisan who constantly works on the job, because he is dependent on sources, archives, etc.... And of course, these sources, archives, they are constantly changing.^[7] Thus, the evolution of this process permits a construction of a united vision more comprehensive and nuanced than at the start.^[7]

The Journal Communisme (1982–)

The Black Book of Communism (1997)

After many contributions and publications on various aspects of communism, both in France and internationally, Courtois participated in the Black Book of Communism, a project published in November 1997, where he was the coordinator and wrote the preface. Also participating in this work were Nicolas Werth (professor of history and a researcher at the Institute of Modern History (IHTP) where he specialises in the Soviet Union), Jean-Louis Panné (historian and editor at Gallimard, also the author of a biography of Boris Souvarine), Karel Bartosek (researcher at CNRS and editor of the journal New Alternative), Andrzej Paczkowski (Professor of Political Science and member of the board of the archives for the Ministry of Interior). Courtois himself was the co-author of an article on the Comintern.

Content

The book takes stock of the crimes committed by the various forms of power exercised by communism. The introduction by Courtois is entitled "The Crimes of Communism", which was responsible for the deaths of nearly 100 million human beings.^[10]

"The crimes of communism have not been subject to a legitimate and normal assessment from a historical or a moral point of view. Without doubt this is here one of the first times that we try an approach to communism in questioning whether its criminality is both central and global to its existence".^[11]

The book is part of an essentialist vision of communism developed by Ernst Nolte that it would have as its essence a general criminal nature.^[12]

Controversy over number of victims

One of the contributors to the Black Book, Nicolas Werth criticised Courtois for having, in his preface, the figure of 20 million economic or political victims of socialism in the USSR while they did not number more than 15 million victims. Another contributor, Jean-Louis Margolin noted that he had never talked about 1 million deaths in Vietnam contrary to what was claimed by Courtois in his text.

How to calculate in an unbiased fashion the numbers of disparate victims who died in civil wars, economic crises or even common criminals on five continents by various regimes for more than 70 years, was also discussed. The authors of the Century of Communism (2000), led by Claude Pennetier, challenged the uniqueness of communism underpinned by the Black Book "If it is a presupposition that this book would definitely wish to call in question, as well as prejudice, it contains some truth. It is the uniqueness of what is called the "communism of the 20th century. From "Past of an Illusion,^[13] "Crimes of Communism,^[14] the first error is the non-critical use of a single article and will consequently reduce Communism to "one" fundamental property.^[15] "The authors of this book did not have much in common with the Hungary of János Kádár and the Cambodia of Pol Pot.

Controversy on comparison with Nazism

It is less the number of deaths caused by dictatorships who claim to be communist as the comparison with Nazism that has caused controversy in France, which has very similar terms to the famous "quarrel of historians" who tied up Germany in the mid-1980s because of an article by Ernst Nolte.^[16] Some writers and commentators were surprised that Courtois made the comparison with Nazism a theme of part of the preface, when no contributions referred to the question.

Courtois raised the comparison between Nazism and Communism as an issue to be dealt with by historians and called for the establishment of an equivalent of the Nuremberg tribunal to try those Communists responsible. He compared the organisation of the two movements, and the number of victims attributed to communism to the number of deaths from Nazism. He draws a parallel between Nazi "race genocide" and what he calls, following Ernst Nolte, "class genocide".^[17] Communism was, for its supporters, a humanist and egalitarian ideology, unlike Nazism, many historians, starting with some authors of the book, expressed their disagreement with Courtois. Nicolas Werth, in particular, said that "the more you compare communism and Nazism, the more obvious are the differences".^[18]

According to Annette Wieviorka, director of research at CNRS, "Stéphane Courtois shows the comparison between the acute awareness of the Jewish genocide and that of Communism which is a tissue of falsehoods and approximations", highlightened that the Holocaust was not to become a privileged object of historical research until the 1970s and imposed itself on the collective memory only in the 1980s. He also cites François Furet, who would have written the foreword had he not died prematurely, who said that the Genocide of Jews had "the awful distinction of being an end in itself".^[19]

Some, despite repeated denials of a conflict of interest, saw this comparison as assimilation pure and simple.and as such have seen fit to denounce it. The journalist Benoît Rayski accused some intellectuals, including Stéphane Courtois, Alain Besançon, Ernst Nolte, and Jean-François Revel of wanting to confound the West about the issue of Nazism to promote their own anticommunism.^[20]

Main theses

Historiographical influences

Courtois's works, especially The Black Book of Communism, were a continuation of the "turn" in historiography begun in 1995 with the publication of the essay by the excommunist activist historian and member of the Communist Party from 1947 to 1959, François Furet dealing with the "communist illusion" and entitled The Past of an Illusion. Essay on the Communistidea in the 20th century.^[21]

Furet had also agreed to write the preface to the Black Book of Communism but he died in July 1997.^[22]

"Communism is a form of totalitarianism"

For Courtois, communism is a form of totalitarianism, and the same for Italian fascism and German Nazism. In that sense, he opposed Hannah Arendt and George L. Mosse. The first matches the birth of totalitarianism in Russia with the rise of Stalin (not Lenin); from there, it reduced to communist totalitarianism in a very short time to "Stalinism". Historiography based on this theory from Hannah Arendt, designed in the 1950s, is, according to Courtois, the mainstream in the teaching of the totalitarian phenomenon in France in the 21st century but Courtois says "campaign" against the historiographic orientation in which he opposes the idea of a totalitarian communism whose beginnings are the publication of What to do? by Lenin in 1902.

This thesis is outlined in his publication Communism and totalitarianism (Perrin, 2009) which dealt with the subject chronologically (thematic in the last installment) in a four-part series of discussions dedicated to the totalitarian regimes in Europe:

"Lenin was the inventor of totalitarianism"

Courtois mainly described this thesis in his biography: Lenin, the inventor of totalitarianism (Perrin, 2007). It is included in a chapter on Communism and totalitarianism (Perrin, 2009).

"Glorious memory" and "tragic memory" of communism in Europe

According to Courtois, there is a clear dichotomy in the history of communism between a "positive memory" of communism in Western Europe (France, Italy, Spain, etc..) and a "tragic memory" in Eastern Europe (Poland, Romania, the Baltic States, etc.).^[9] This theory was developed in the book that followed the Black Book of Communism and is entitled Make a clean sweep of the past! History and Memories of Communism in Europe (2002).^[23]

In France, the "positive memory" would be echoed in the social conquests of the Popular Front, the participation of the communists in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War, the resistance to the German occupation during World War II, and the Soviet victory over Nazism, which Courtois called "the universal appeal of Stalingrad" (the Soviet victory at Stalingrad marked the "turning point of the war" in favour of the Allies). He took here the concept coined by Furet the "Universal appeal of October" in reference to the acclaim around the October Revolution.

To oppose this was a "tragic memory", which, in Poland, comes from its annexation after the Nazi-Soviet pact and the Katyn massacre, in the Baltic countries, from annexations by the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1990, and in Romania, from annexation by the Soviet Union of the regions of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina and the establishment of a long dictatorship (45 years). According to the historical Commissions report in 1991 on Roumania, nearly two million people were killed and nearly 300,000 people were deported to labour camps either within Romania itself, or to Siberia or Kazakhstan.^[24] This deep trauma resulted in Romania, by the creation in 1993 at Sighet, a prison used by the Romanian communist regime, a place of memory (research institute, library, museum and summer university) unique of its kind: the "Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance" (Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance) (Memorialul Victimelor Comunismului şi al Rezistenţei). Conference proceedings and discussions supported by Stéphane Courtois during four visits made to the memorial, and the Centre for Studies of Bucharest, were published in November 2003 under the title Courtois The Sighet(Fundatia Academia Civica) ^[25] and republished in 2006 (Liternet).^[26]

In his speech at the Summer University at Sighet entitled "The Lost Honour of the European Left," Courtois denounced the rejection by more than two-thirds of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe of a Resolution and a "Recommendation concerning the condemnation of crimes committed by totalitarian communist regimes", 25 January 2007.^[27]^[28]^[29]

According to Courtois, the rejection was representative of the phenomenon that Alain Besançon described in 1997 as "historical amnesia and hypermnesia" (amnesia for non-Nazi crimes, hypermnesia for Nazi crimes^[30]) resulting in a denial of the "memory of the victims of other regimes other than Nazi" in some Western European states. It also prevents the emergence of what he calls a "reunification memorial", which could exist,^[31] with commemorations and educational activities taking place in common.^[32]

Public pronouncements

Support for military intervention in Afghanistan and Iraq

He is a member of the Circle of Oratory and is on the editorial board of the journal Brave New World. It is a source of public support for the Afghan war of 2001, against "Islamic fundamentalism".^[33]

In the book Iraq, and me. Another look at a world at war,^[34] Stéphane Courtois drew a parallel between the communist past and the Islamism of today. Intellectually pro-American,^[35] he believes in his famous speech to the UN, Dominique de Villepin was a victim of reactions from Soviet propaganda in France. Having overemphasised "U.S. go home" for fifty years, it leaves its traces.^[36] Following the war in Iraq, he found that the abuses committed by American soldiers in Abu Ghraib prison was an "inevitable sideline of war".^[37]

Support for Gerard Chauvy

Stéphane Courtois supported Gerard Chauvy in the trial when he opposed Raymond Aubrac.^[38]^[39]^[40] François Delpla believed that in the context of this case, "the desire to finish with communism" had been lost on Courtois to the extent that he was running with the wolves against Aubrac, during a campaign questioning the quality of the resistance.^[41]

Controversies with French historians

The anticommunist nature of his works, in France, where the French Communist Party has long been "the first party of France", made him be a historian challenged by a fringe of his colleagues, where the appearance of a number of controversies or "historian quarrels".

Henry Rousso

The historian Henry Rousso (Vichy, a past that does not pass, 1996) criticized him for simplifying all militant or communist sympathizers as accomplices of the crimes of Stalinism and, by extension, considered all to be conditionally allied with communist forces or with the Soviets as blind accomplices of Stalin.

Jean-Jacques Becker

The historian Jean-Jacques Becker believed that his research was sensationalist in nature: "This is a fighter who wants to make history effective, that is to say exactly the opposite of history…."^[42]

Annie Lacroix-Riz et Jean-Jacques Marie

In 2006, in the magazine Brave New World, he published an article Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial"? (republished on the website of the historical journal Arkheia^[43]) in which he publicly accused the French historian and militant communist, Annie Lacroix-Riz of denying the Holodomor in Ukraine in 1932–1933.

The famine was reported in the Western world in 1935 by Boris Souvarine{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} and by Alexander Solzhenitsyn in 1973 in The Gulag Archipelago. However, after a carefully sanitized in the summer of 1933 by Prime Minister of France Édouard Herriot, the latter declared there to be no famine.^[43] The great famine was confirmed by the opening of Soviet archives in the early 1990s.

According to him, Annie Lacroix-Rice tried to downplay the event as one of "scarcity" a famine in which several million people died.^[44] This article was issued in response to the creation by Annie Lacroix-Riz, of "a website to appeal to his colleagues to mobilize against an unspeakable lie that ran the world for seventy years: No, ladies and gentlemen, there was no famine in Ukraine in 1932-1933, much less a famine that would have caused millions of deaths, and especially not a famine organized by the Soviet regime itself".^[43]

Subsequently, in 2007 and in 2008 respectively, historians Annie Lacroix-Riz (Militant Communist) and {{Interlanguage link multi|Jean-Jacques Marie|fr}} (Militant Trotskyist) criticized Stéphane Courtois for having expressed his views in an interview with the extreme right monthly {{Interlanguage link multi|Le Choc du mois|fr}}.^[45]^[46]^[47]

In 2009, he criticized the militant Trotskyist and historian Jean-Jacques Marie for the contents of chapter entitled: "1922: the year of serenity", published in his biography Lenin, 1870-1924 (Balland, Paris, 2004).^[48] Courtois accuses Jean-Jacques Marie for apologising for Lenin for whom 1922, on the contrary, was "the year of transition to paranoia".^[48] This showed itself on the one hand, by the note from Lenin to the Politburo on 19 March 1922 in which he wanted to use the Soviet famine of 1921–1922 to destroy the Orthodox Church: "It is precisely now when the famine-struck regions eat human flesh, and thousands of corpses litter the roads, that we need to enforce the confiscation of church property with savage energy and most unforgivingly, and crush any hint of resistance, with such brutality that it will be talked about for decades".^[49] This "paranoia" is also reflected in the Terror against the Socialist-Revolutionaries (death sentences, gulag, etc..) as well as the expulsion (or sometimes internal exile) of the Russian intelligentsia.^[48] This last event is described by him in the chapter, "Lenin and the destruction of the Russian intelligentsia", in his book Communism and totalitarianism (pre-published in Societal magazine No. 55 to 59): "the deportees were warned that any illegal return to Russia would automatically entail the death penalty".^[50] On 25 May 1922, Lenin addressed himself to Stalin in the following terms: "hundreds of these gentlemen must be expelled without mercy. We are going to clean up Russia once and for all.... They should all be turned away from Russia".^[50] In September 1922, Lenin justified his act to Maxim Gorky: "the intellectuals, the lackeys of capitalism, think they are the brains of the nation. In reality, they are not the brain, they are crap".^[51]

Influence abroad

Although sometimes contested in France, his works are generally more favourably received abroad, especially in the former communist regimes of Eastern Europe.

Romania

Translation of his work

As proof of his ideologic influence, an important part of his work has been translated into Romanian (The Black Book of Communism, Such a long night, Dictionary of communism, Communism and Totalitarianism, The blind spot in European history, etc.).

Sighet Memorial and Study Centre in Bucharest

Since 2001, he has been the rector of the Summer School of the Sighet Memorial.^[52] The visits to Romania are the project of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.^[66]

Estonia

In 2000, Kommunismi must Raamat the Estonian version of the Black Book of Communism received political support by being prefaced by the President of Estonia Lennart Meri. The preface was titled "Shadows over the world" ("Varjud maailma Kohal"). At the same time, the Prime Minister Mart Laar participated in this collective work by signing an additional chapter of 80 pages "Estonia and Communism" ("Eesti ja kommunism").

Moldova

He was awarded the honorary title of Doctor Honoris Causa by the Free International University of Moldova (ULIM), in Chisinau, on 8 July 2011.^[53]

Specialised publisher

Besides his career as a historian, he is a specialised publisher who has published authors such as Ernst Nolte or Reynald Secher.

The Age of Man and Communisme (1982–)

Since 1995 he has been Director (co-director from 1982 to 1995) and co-founder, with Annie Kriegel in 1982, of the journal Communisme at the University Press of France and The Age of Man.

Threshold: Archives of communism (1995–1999)

He was co-founder, with Nicolas Werth in 1995, of the collection "Archives of communism" from editions du Seuil.

Rocher: Democracy or totalitarianism (2002–2008)

He was founder and director from 2002 to 2008, of the collection "Democracy or totalitarianism" from Éditions du Rocher. This collection was transferred to Éditions du Cerf in 2010.^[54]

Deer: Political Deer (2010–)

He is founder and director since 2010 of the collection "Political Deer" Éditions du Cerf.^[55]

Published works

Most of his works were written in French, but some have been directly published in a foreign language (English, German, etc.), and some have been translated into foreign languages (The Black Book of Communism has more 30 translations).

Individual works / collective works (In collaboration: "in coll."; Under his direction: "dir.")

Contributions (preface, afterword, chapter)

See also

Notes and references

1. ^Ronald Grigir Suny. Russian Terror/ism and Revisionist Historiography. Australian Journal of Politics and History: Volume 53, Number 1, 2007, pp. 5-19. "The Black Book may be the single most influential text on the Soviet Union and other state socialist regimes and movements published since The GULag Archipelago."
2. ^Ronald Aronso.n Review: Communism's Posthumous TrialReviewed Work(s): The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression byStéphane Courtois; The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century by François Furet; The Burden of Responsibility: Blum, Camus, Aron, and the French Twentieth Century by Tony Judt; Le Siècle des communismes by Michel Dreyfus. History and Theory, Vol. 42, No. 2 (May, 2003), pp. 222-245
3. ^{{cite book |title= The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression | editor1-last = Courtois | editor1-first = Stéphane | editor1-link = |coauthors= |year= 1999 |publisher= Harvard University Press |location= |isbn= 0-674-07608-7 |page= 9 |pages= |url= |accessdate=}}
4. ^Christophe Bourseiller, Les Maoïstes. La folle histoire des gardes rouges français, Paris, Plon, 1996, p. 277.
5. ^Christophe Bourseiller, The Maoists. The mad history of the French Red Guards, Paris, Plon, 1996, p. 277 (Fr).
6. ^¹Bruno Groppo and Bernard Pudal, article Three issues under debate in the Century of Communism, ed. de l'Atelier, 2000, paperback Points-Seuil, 2004, p. 107-108 (Fr)
7. ^« Chapter 20. - "History of Communism: the documentation revolution" in Communism and Totalitarianism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 401
8. ^Annie Kriegel and Stéphane Courtois, Eugen Fried, Le Seuil, 1997, p. 7
9. ^Stéphane Courtois, How to understand Stalin, conference of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, 24 Febnruary 2003
10. ^The Black Book of Communism. Crimes, Terror, Repression (dir.), Robert Laffont, Paris, 1998, p. 8.
11. ^Stéphene Courtois, The Crimes of Communism in The Black Book of Communism, Robert Laffont, 1997, p. 13
12. ^Serge Wolikow, article Three issues under debate in The Century of Communism, éd. de l'Atelier, 2000, paperback Points-Seuil, 2004, pp. 710–711 (Fr)
13. ^This is the book by François Furet
14. ^This is the introduction by Courtois in the Livre noir
15. ^First paragraph of the Introduction to The Century of Communism, 2000
16. ^Ernst Nolte, A past that does not happen, published in 1986 in the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, published in France in the collection of texts Fascism & Totalitarianism, Robert Laffont, et al. "Mouthpieces" texts compiled by Stéphane Courtois.
17. ^Fascism & Totalitarianism, pp. 14–15
18. ^Le Monde, 21 September 2000.
19. ^Annette Wieviorka, Le Monde of 27 November 1997
20. ^Benedict Rayski, The Jewish child and the Ukrainian child. Reflections on blasphemy. See also the report of Dominique Vidal, "The Jewish child and the Ukrainian child. Reflections on a blasphemy, Le Monde Diplomatique, February 2002
21. ^One day in History - One extra long night: The climax of the totalitarian regimes of Europe, 1935-1953, Stéphane Courtois and Christophe Dickès, Canal Académie, 1 January 2005, {{YouTube|k2epJU1cY0E|enregistrement audio sur}}
22. ^audio recording of the Conference on The Black Book of the French Revolution in Paris Thursday, 24 January 2008 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116233023/http://www.lesepees.fr/archive/2008/01/03/conference-le-jeudi-24-janvier-20h.html |date=16 November 2008 }}, {{YouTube|d-ItZhrkSA4|Conférence du 24 janvier 2008 sous-titrée sur Youtube Swords, with Renaud Escande, and Antoine Courtois Stéphane Foncin, 24 January 2008 Conference subtitles}}
23. ^Make a clean sweep of the past! History and memories of communism in Europe, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Tempus collection, Paris, 2002, {{ISBN|978-2262030803}}
24. ^For Romania: Raportul Comisiei Prezidenţiale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România (Report of the Presidential Commission for the Analysis of the Communist Dictatorship in Romania) Raportul Comisiei Prezidenţiale pentru Analiza Dictaturii Comuniste din România and Traian Băsescu: condemned explicit şi Categoric sistemul comunist din România {{dead link|date=December 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}; see also Presidential Commission for the Study of the Communist Dictatorship in Moldova: Raportul Comisiei pentru studierea şi bilanţul regimului din Republica Moldova comunist (Report of the Commission for the study and assessment of the communist regime in the Republic of Moldova) on
25. ^Courtois the Sighet Stéphane Courtois, Fundatia Civic Academy Collection: Oral History no 3, Bucharest, 2003, {{ISBN|973-8214-18-1}}
26. ^Courtois the Sighet Courtois Stéphane Courtois, Editura Liternet, Bucharest, 2006, {{ISBN|978-9737893536}}
27. ^The Lost Honour of the European Left, Stéphane Courtois article appeared in the Romanian newspaper Romania Libera (România Liberă), Adrian Bucurescu, Saturday, July 28, 2007
28. ^Romania free - The Lost Honour of the European Left, Stéphane Courtois, Sighet Memorial - Press Release, July 28, 2007
29. ^Chapter 23: The Lost Honour of the European Left in Communism and Totalitarianism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, 2009, p. 407
30. ^Alain Besançon, in his speech "Memory and forgetfulness of Bolshevism" delivered at the Institut de France at the annual public meeting of the five academies, 21 October 1997, and in his book The misfortune of the century of communism, Nazism and the uniqueness of the Holocaust, Fayard, Paris, 1998, 165 p.
31. ^In contrast to Sighet where there is also a monument to victims of the Holocaust in Romania, inaugurated by Elie Wiesel at the end of the same street 200 metres from the "Memorial to the Victims of Communism and of the Resistance"
32. ^¹²Conférence « Le lourd héritage totalitaire du communisme dans l'espace européen » {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016084721/http://lumiere101.com/2009/03/06/memoire-et-histoire-du-communisme-en-europe/ |date=2013-10-16 }}, « séminaire Héritage et Mémoire du Communisme en Europe », Stéphane Courtois et Dominique Reynié, Fondation pour l'innovation politique, 4 mars 2009, {{YouTube|oEmFD6nQWZQ|enregistrement audio sur}}
33. ^Stéphane Courtois et al., Stéphane Courtois et al, "This war is ours"{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, Le Monde, 8 November 2001.
34. ^Rigoulot Pierre and Michel Taubman (ed.), Iraq, an me. Another look at a world at war, Editions du Rocher, et al. "Democracy and Totalitarianism", 2004, 424 p.
35. ^"The French americanophile exercise", Le Monde, 22 November 2007.
36. ^"The best friends of America" art. cit.
37. ^"The best friends of America" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216235738/http://leruisseau.iguane.org/spip.php?article1073 |date=2008-12-16 }}, Libération, 9 May 2006.
38. ^Confrontation organized by the newspaper Libération between Aubrac and seven other historians Jean-Pierre Vernant.
39. ^Lyon-Mag, No. 57, March 1997.
40. ^{{cite web |url=http://pedagogie.ac-montpellier.fr/hist_geo/cercle/defense/contributions_scientifiques/4/conference_sete.doc |title=The field of memory |accessdate=2013-08-17 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070315210539/http://pedagogie.ac-montpellier.fr/hist_geo/cercle/defense/contributions_scientifiques/4/conference_sete.doc |archivedate=March 15, 2007 |df= }}, conference 4 April 2005.
41. ^"To finish with communism" was the issue of the Arte TV channel on 16 October 2001, followed by a discussion on the Internet with Courtois. See the article by François Delpla, "An extreme example of slanderous perseverance" « Un exemple extrême de persévérance calomniatrice »
42. ^"The Black Book of Communism: the controversy of understanding", Twentieth Century. History Review, no 59, July–September 1998, p. 179. Perseus Online En ligne sur Persée
43. ^¹²Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial?, Stéphane Courtois, Arkheia, www.arkheia-revue.org
44. ^Famine in Ukraine (Holodomor): you said "denial"?, Stéphane Courtois, Brave New World No. 1, Paris, Denëol, 2006.
45. ^Interview with Stéphane Courtois Communism equivalence to Nazism is finally allowed! Le Choc du mois 17 November 2007
46. ^Letter from Annie Lacroix-Riz
47. ^{{Interlanguage link multi|Jean-Jacques Marie|fr}}, "Stéphane Courtois in his works", in Journal of the labour movement No. 37, first quarter 2008
48. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷[https://web.archive.org/web/20130927043923/http://www.souvarine.fr/index.php?mact=News,cntnt01,detail,0&cntnt01articleid=55&cntnt01detailtemplate=podcast&cntnt01lang=fr_FR&cntnt01returnid=41 Conference on "Communism and Totalitarism"], Stéphane Courtois, Institut d'histoire sociale, 22 October 2009, {{YouTube|QT9qtqxR0mM|enregistrement audio sur}}.
49. ^Lenin 19 March 1922 quoted in Major manipulations of modern times, Barnard Raquin, Trajectories, Paris, 2005, p. 43
50. ^¹Chapter VII: Lenin and the destruction of the Russian intelligentsia {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927142104/http://www.editions-perrin.fr/_docs/9782262030803.pdf |date=2013-09-27 }} in Totalitarianism and Communism Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, pp. 133–134
51. ^Chapter VI: Terror: ordinary means of government in Totalitarianism and Communism, Stéphane Courtois, Perrin, Paris, p. 125
52. ^Summer School Sighet, 2008, Sighet Memorial website
53. ^[https://archive.is/20130415052254/http://www.latitudefrance.org/L-historien-Stephane-Courtois-a "The historian Stéphane Courtois in Chisinau"], Latitude France (Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 22 July 2011
54. ^¹Stéphane Courtois website
55. ^Editions du Cerf website {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140904033722/http://www.editionsducerf.fr/html/index/collection.asp?n_col_cerf=660&id_theme=4 |date=2014-09-04 }}