“Tonkawa language”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

词条

Tonkawa language

释义

Phonology
Vowels Consonants Consonant clusters Phonological processes and morphophonemics Syllable structure
Morphology
Grammar
Nouns Verbs Enclitics
Writing system
Example
References
External links

{{Infobox language
| name = Tonkawa
| states = United States
| region = Western Oklahoma, South-central Texas and into New Mexico
| extinct = ca. 1940
| familycolor = American
| family = Language isolate
| iso3 = tqw
| map = Tonkawa lang.png
| mapcaption = Pre-contact distribution of the Tonkawa language
| notice = IPA
| glotto = tonk1249
| glottorefname = Tonkawa
}}

The Tonkawa language was spoken in Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico by the Tonkawa people. A language isolate, with no known related languages,^[1] Tonkawa is now extinct.^[2] Members of the Tonkawa tribe now speak English.

Phonology

Vowels

Tonkawa has 10 vowels:

	Front				Back
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close	i	iː}}			u	uː}}
Mid	e	eː}}			o	oː}}
Open			a	aː}}

Each vowel is distinguished by the quality of sound and the length of the vowel.
The vowels occur in five pairs that have differing vowel lengths (i.e. short vowels vs. long vowels).
In the front and the mid back vowel pairs, the short vowels are phonetically lower than their long counterparts: {{IPA|/i/}} → {{IPAblink|ɪ}}, {{IPA|/e/}} → {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, {{IPA|/o/}} → {{IPAblink|ɔ}}.
The low vowels {{IPA|/a, aː/}} vary between central and back articulations: {{IPA|[a~ɑ, aː~ɑː]}}.
Vowels that are followed by j and w are slightly raised in their position of articulation

Consonants

Tonkawa has 15 consonants:

	Bilabial	Coronal	Dorsal		Glottal
	Bilabial	Coronal	plain	labial	Glottal
Nasal	m	n
Plosive	p	t	k	kʷ}}	ʔ}}
Affricate	t͡s}}
Fricative	s	x	xʷ}}	h
Approximant	l	j	w

The affricate {{IPA|/ts/}} and fricative {{IPA|/s/}} vary freely between dental and postalveolar articulations, i.e. {{IPA|[ts~tʃ]}} and {{IPA|[s~ʃ]}}. There is a tendency for {{IPA|[ʃ]}} to occur at the end of words (but no tendency for {{IPA|[tʃ]}}).
The other coronals {{IPA|/t, n, l/}} are consistently dental.
The dorsal obstruents are produced with a palatal place of articulation before front vowels {{IPA|/i, iː, e, eː/}}, otherwise they are velar:
- {{IPA|/k, kʷ, x, xʷ/}} → {{IPA|[c, cʷ, ç, çʷ]}}
The dorsal approximants {{IPA|/j, w/}} are consistently palatal and labiovelar respectively.

Consonant clusters

There are two environments in which consonant clusters occur in Tonkawa:

when a consonant is repeated
when the cluster is within the syllable

Repeated or identical consonants are treated as one unit. However, the condition that causes this repetition has not been fully analyzed.

Example: {{IPA|sʔa-ko}} 'he scrapes it' versus {{IPA|mʔe-t-no}} 'lightning strikes him'

There are cases where the glottal stop is not used in the cluster or combination

There are certain consonants that can either begin or end in a cluster. However, if the cluster begins the syllable, there can be no intervening vowel.

Initial Cluster Consonants: {{IPA|kʷ, m, n, s, x}}
Final Cluster Consonants: {{IPA|ʔ}}

Phonological processes and morphophonemics

Initial stem syllables that begin with h-

the h- is dropped when a prefix is added
if the syllable is C + V, then the vowel is lengthened and given the quality of the stem vowel.
if the syllable ends in a consonant, then the initial stem forms a new syllable with the final consonant of the prefix.

Final stem syllables

Forms: C V w or C V y
The form changes to C {{IPA|oː}} if followed by a suffix that starts with a consonant
If a long vowel occurs the suffixes change from (-we/-{{IPA|wesʔ}}/{{IPA|aːdew}}) to (-{{IPA|oː}} or -o/{{IPA|oːsʔ}}/-{{IPA|aːdo}})

An interesting feature of Tonkawan phonology is that the vowels in even-numbered syllables are reduced. That is, long vowels are shortened, while short vowels disappear. Analyses of this were given by Kisseberth (1970), Phelps (1973, 1975) and Noske (1993).

Syllable structure

The Tonkawa language is a syllabic language that bases its word and sentence prosody on even stressed syllables.

Disyllabic words are when the stress is placed on the final syllable.
Polysyllabic words are when the stress is moved to the next to last syllable, the penult.

There are five types of syllable arrangements: (CL consonant, CC: consonant cluster, V: vowel)

C + V → ka-la 'mouth'
C + V + C → tan-kol 'back of head'
CC + V → {{IPA|sʔa-ko}} 'he scrapes it'
CC + V + C → {{IPA|mʔe-t-no}} 'lightning strikes him'
C + V + {{IPA|ʔs}} or {{IPA|sʔ}}/ {{IPA|lʔ}}/ {{IPA|jʔ}} → jam-{{IPA|xoʔs}} 'I paint his face'

Morphology

The morphemes in Tonkawa can be divided as follows:

I. Themes

Free – the stem can stand alone
Bound – the stem must have a suffix or prefix attached; it cannot stand alone

In Tonkawa the theme is composed of morphologic units. The basic unit is the stem. The stem is composed of two elements (the consonant and vowel) and modified by affixes. The theme, or stem, is functional, which means it changes as more affixation is added. This leads to the fusion of the stem and affix where it becomes difficult to isolate the word into its smaller units.

II. Affixes

Transformative – the affix changes the meaning and/or function of the word
Verbal – the affix changes a certain aspect of the verb
Noun and Pronoun – the affix changes a certain aspect of the noun or pronoun

III. Enclitics

Grammar

In English, pronouns, nouns, verbs, etc. are individual words, Tonkawa forms the parts of speech differently, and the most important grammatical function is affixation. This process shows the subjects, objects, and pronouns of words and/or verbs. Within affixations, the suffix has more importance than the prefix.

The differentiation between subject and object is shown in the suffix. While the word order tends to be subject-object-verb (SOV), compounding words is very common in Tonkawa. Reduplication is very common in Tonkawa and affects only the verb themes. Usually, only one syllable undergoes reduplication, and it notes a repeated action, vigorous action, or a plural subject.

Nouns

Nouns function as free themes, or stems, in Tonkawa. There is a limit of only two or three affixes that can compound with a noun. However, there are cases of a bound theme occurring in noun compounds, which occurs with the suffix -an is added. In English, pronouns and nouns are usually grouped together, but because pronouns in Tonkawa are bound themes, they will be discussed with the verb section.

Noun suffixes

Case	Indefinite (singular/plural)	Definite (singular/plural)
Nominative	-la/ -ka	ʔaːla}}/ -{{IPA\|ʔaːka}}
Accusative	-lak/ -kak	ʔaːlak}}/ -{{IPA\|ʔaːkak}}
Genitive	ʔan}}	ʔaːlʔan}}
Dative (Arrival)	ʔaːyik}}
Dative (Approach)	ʔaːwʔan}}
Instrumental	-es / -kas	aːlas}}/ -{{IPA\|ʔaːkay}}
Conjunctive	ʔen}}	ʔaːlʔen}}
Vocative	(bare stem)	(bare stem)

Verbs

Verbs are bound morphemes that have a limit of only two themes, the second theme being the modifying theme and usually serving as an adverbial theme. However, if the suffix -{{IPA|ʔe}}/-wa is added the verb functions as a free theme.

Pronouns

Pronouns are not used except for emphasis on the subject and are affixated as prefixes. Person and number are usually indicated by the affixation of the verb. Most pronouns are bound themes, especially the demonstrative pronouns.

Personal Pronoun	Tonkawa Personal Pronoun	English Personal Pronoun
1st person singular	saː-}}	me
2nd person singular	naː-}}	you
3rd person singular	ʔa-}}	him/her
1st person plural	kew-saː-}}	we/us
2nd person plural	we-naː-}}	you pl./them

Demonstrative pronouns

Demonstrative adverbs can be formed by adding -ca 'place', -l 'direction', -c 'manner' to the demonstrative pronouns below.

Example: {{IPA|waː}} 'that one aforementioned' + ca 'place = '{{IPA|waː-ca}} 'that place aforementioned'

Interrogative pronouns can be formed by adding the prefix he- to the demonstrative pronouns as well by using the same format for the demonstrative adverbs.

Example: he 'interrogative' + {{IPA|teː}} 'this' + l 'direction' = {{IPA|he-teː-l}} 'where'

Indefinite pronouns can also be formed with affixation. (Interrogative + {{IPA|ʔax}})

Example: {{IPA|hecuː}} 'what' + {{IPA|ʔax}} = {{IPA|hecuː-ʔax}} 'anything, something, anyone, someone'

Tonkawa Demonstrative	English Demonstrative
waː-	the one aforementioned
teː-	this
heʔe/ {{IPA\|he{{IPA\|ʔeː/ {{IPA\|heː	that
weː	(that) one yonder

Also within the verbal-prefix category are the causatives {{IPA|ya-}} and {{IPA|nec-}}, where {{IPA|ya-}} is the older form.

Verb suffixes

Verb suffixes are important in Tonkawa because they usually indicate the tense, negativity, and manner (outside of what is conveyed in the aforementioned prefixes) of the action performed.

Suffix	Function	Placement
-ape/-ap	Negation suffix	follows the theme but follows a second-person plural object pronoun, if present
nesʔe/ -{{IPA\|nesʔ	Dual subject suffix	follows the negation suffix, future tense suffix, and second-person plural object pronoun
wesʔe/ -{{IPA\|weʔ	Plural subject suffix	same position as the dual subject; occurs in the first and second persons in all modes
aːtew/ -{{IPA\|aːto	Future tense suffix	ʔe}} or just -{{IPA\|ʔ}}; past tense: -{{IPA\|ʔej}} or -{{IPA\|ʔeːje}})
-no/ -n	Continuative suffix	after the stem
oː/ -o	declarative mode suffix	after the present or past tense
kʷa	Exclamatory suffix	after the 3rd person singular or at the end of the word
-w	Imperative mode	only in the singular, dual, or second-person plural

Enclitics

Enclitics are bound morphemes that are suffixed to verbs, nouns, and demonstratives that end with -k. Enclitics often express modal concepts in Tonkawa, which occur in the declarative, interrogative, and quotative/narrative clauses or statements.

Clause	Suffix	Special Circumstances
Declarative	aːwe}}
Interrogative	jelkʷa}}	ʔ}} suffix unless there is an interrogative pronoun
Quotative/ Narrative	noʔo}}/ -{{IPA\|laknoʔo}}	only added to verb forms with –k suffix and if the verb is used in telling a mythical story

Writing system

The orthography used on the Tonkawa Tribe's website is similar to Americanist phonetic notation.

Alphabet	Pronunciation	Alphabet	Pronunciation
c	/ts/}}	a	/a/}}
h	/h/}}	a·	/aː/}}
k	/k/}}	e	/e/}}
kʷ}}	/kʷ/}}	e·	/eː/}}
l	/l/}}	i	/i/}}
m	/m/}}	i·	/iː/}}
n	/n/}}	o	/o/}}
p	/p/}}	o·	/oː/}}
s	/s/}}	u	/u/}}
t	/t/}}	u·	/uː/}}
w	/w/}}
x	/x/}}
xʷ}}	/xʷ/}}
y	/j/}}
' or ^?	/ʔ/}}

Long vowels are indicated with a following middle dot {{angbr|·}}. The affricate {{IPA|/ts/}} is written {{angbr|c}}. The glottal stop {{IPA|/ʔ/}} is written as either an apostrophe {{angbr|'}} or as a superscript question mark {{angbr|^?}}. The palatal glide {{IPA|/j/}} is written {{angbr|y}}.

The phonemic orthography used in Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts is a later version of Americanist transcription. It uses a colon for long vowels {{angbr|:}} and the traditional glottal stop symbol {{angbr|{{IPA|ʔ}}}}.

Examples are mummun 'salt' and mummunchicew 'pepper'.

Example

The following text is the first four sentences of Coyote and Jackrabbit, from Hoijer's Tonkawa Texts.

ha·csokonayla ha·nanoklaknoˀo xamˀalˀa·yˀik. ˀe·kʷa tanmaslakʷa·low hecne·laklaknoˀo lak. ha·csokonayla "ˀo·c!" noklaknoˀo. "ˀekʷanesxaw sa·ken nenxales!" noklaknoˀo. ˀe·ta tanmaslakʷa·lowa·ˀa·lak hewleklaknoˀo.

Gloss:

Coyote / he was going along, S / on the prairie. When he did so / Jackrabbit / he was lying, S / (accus.). Coyote / "Oho!" / he said, S. "Horse /my / I have found it!" / he said, S. And then / that Jackrabbit afm / he caught him, S.

In this gloss, S is an abbreviation for "it is said", and afm for "the aforementioned".

References

1. ^{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/AmericanIndianLanguagesTheHistoricalLinguisticsOfNativeAmerica|title=American Indian Languages The Historical Linguistics Of Native America|last=Campbell|first=Lyle|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780195140507|location=|pages=143}}
2. ^{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/66910002|title=International encyclopedia of linguistics|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Frawley, William, 1953-|isbn=9780195307450|edition= 2nd |location=New York, NY|oclc=66910002}}

Hoijer, Harry. (1933). [https://archive.org/details/tonkawaindianlan03hoij Tonkawa: An Indian language of Texas]. New York: Columbia University. (Extract from Handbook of American Indian languages, Vol. 3).
Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Tonkawa. in Harry Hoijer et al., Linguistic Structures of Native America, 289–311.
Hoijer, Harry. (1949). An Analytical Dictionary of the Tonkawa Language. Berkeley, CA: University of California Publications in Linguistics 5.
Hoijer, Harry. (1972). Tonkawa Texts. Berkeley, CA: University of California Publications in Linguistics 73.
{{Cite book

| publisher = H. Bohlau
| last = Gatschet
| first = Albert Samuel
| title = Zwölf Sprachen aus dem südwesten Nordamerikas (Pueblos- und Apache-mundarten; Tonto, Tonkawa, Digger, Utah.) Wortverzeichnisse herausgegeben, erläutert und mit einer Einleitung über Bau, Begriffsbildung und locale Gruppierung der amerikanischen Sprachen
| location = Weimar, Germany
| language = German
| accessdate = 2012-09-23
| year = 1876
| url = https://archive.org/details/zwlfsprachenaus00gatsgoog
}}

Kisseberth, Charles. (1970). Vowel Elision in Tonkawa and Derivational Constraints. In: Sadock, J.L., & A.L. Vanek (Eds), Studies Presentend to Robert B. Lees by his students. Champaign, IL: Linguistic Research, 109–137.
Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Noske, Roland. (1993). A Theory of Syllabification and Segmental Alternation. With studies on the phonology of French, German, Tonkawa and Yawelmani. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Phelps, Elaine F. (1973). Tonkawa, Sundanese and Kasem. Some problems in Generative Phonology. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle.
Phelps, Elaine F. (1975). Iteration and Disjunctive Domains in Phonology. Linguistic Analysis 1, 137–172.
"[https://web.archive.org/web/20050316021951/http://www.tonkawatribe.com/culture/language.htm The Tonkawa Language: Pronunciation Key]". Retrieved October 12, 2005.

External links

[https://web.archive.org/web/20050316021951/http://www.tonkawatribe.com/culture/language.htm The Tonkawa Language], includes online Tonkawa dictionary
Tonkawa Indian Language
OLAC resources in and about the Tonkawa language

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