“Brazil”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of {{convert|7491|km|mi|0|sp=us}}.^[18] It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile and covers 47.3% of the continent's land area.^[15] Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to diverse wildlife, a variety of ecological systems, and extensive natural resources spanning numerous protected habitats.^[16] This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, and is the subject of significant global interest and debate regarding deforestation and environmental protection.

Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro. In 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, now called the National Congress. The country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup d'état. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, after which civilian governance resumed. Brazil's current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic.^[17] Due to its rich culture and history, the country ranks thirteenth in the world by number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.^[18]

Brazil is considered an advanced emerging economy.^[19] It has the eighth largest GDP in the world by both nominal and PPP measures.^[20]^[21] It is one of the world's major breadbaskets, being the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.^[26] It is classified as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank^[22] and a newly industrialized country,^[23]^[24] with the largest share of global wealth in Latin America. Brazil is a regional power and sometimes considered a great^[25]^[31]^[26] or a middle power in international affairs.^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]^[31] On account of its international recognition and influence, the country is subsequently classified as an emerging power^[32] and a potential superpower by several analysts.^[33]^[34]^[35] Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Union of South American Nations, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States and the Community of Portuguese Language Countries.

Etymology

It is likely that the word "Brazil" comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast.^[36] In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from brasa ("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium).^[37] As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European textile industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil.^[38] Throughout the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods.^[39]

The official Portuguese name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz),^[40] but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) because of the brazilwood trade.^[41] The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name. Some early sailors called it the "Land of Parrots".^[42]

In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees".^[43]

History

Pre-Cabraline era

Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.^[45]^[46] The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere was excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil and radiocarbon dated to 8,000 years ago (6000 BC). The pottery was found near Santarém and provides evidence that the tropical forest region supported a complex prehistoric culture.^[47] The Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó in the Amazon delta from 800 CE to 1400 CE, developing sophisticated pottery, social stratification, large populations, mound building, and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.^[48]

Around the time of the Portuguese arrival, the territory of current day Brazil had an estimated indigenous population of 7 million people,^[49] mostly semi-nomadic who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. The indigenous population of Brazil comprised several large indigenous ethnic groups (e.g. the Tupis, Guaranis, Gês and Arawaks). The Tupí people were subdivided into the Tupiniquins and Tupinambás, and there were also many subdivisions of the other groups.{{sfnp|Levine|2003|p=31}}

Before the arrival of the Europeans, the boundaries between these groups and their subgroups were marked by wars that arose from differences in culture, language and moral beliefs.^[50] These wars also involved large-scale military actions on land and water, with cannibalistic rituals on prisoners of war.^[51]{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|pp=78–80}} While heredity had some weight, leadership status was more subdued over time, than allocated in succession ceremonies and conventions.^[50] Slavery among the Indians had a different meaning than it had for Europeans, since it originated from a diverse socioeconomic organization, in which asymmetries were translated into kinship relations.{{sfnp|Fausto|2000|p=50}}

Portuguese colonization

The land now called Brazil was claimed for the Portuguese Empire on 22 April 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral.^[52] The Portuguese encountered indigenous peoples divided into several tribes, most of whom spoke languages of the Tupi–Guarani family, and fought among themselves.^[53] Though the first settlement was founded in 1532, colonization effectively began in 1534, when King John III of Portugal divided the territory into the fifteen private and autonomous Captaincy Colonies of Brazil.^[54]^[55]

However, the decentralized and unorganized tendencies of the captaincy colonies proved problematic, and in 1549 the Portuguese king restructured them into the Governorate General of Brazil, a single and centralized Portuguese colony in South America.^[55]^[56] In the first two centuries of colonization, Indigenous and European groups lived in constant war, establishing opportunistic alliances in order to gain advantages against each other.^[57]^[58]{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012}}^[59] By the mid-16th century, cane sugar had become Brazil's most important export,^[53]^[60] and slaves purchased in Sub-Saharan Africa, in the slave market of Western Africa^[61] (not only those from Portuguese allies of their colonies in Angola and Mozambique), had become its largest import,^[62]^[63] to cope with plantations of sugarcane, due to increasing international demand for Brazilian sugar.^[64]^[65]

By the end of the 17th century, sugarcane exports began to decline,^[66] and the discovery of gold by bandeirantes in the 1690s would become the new backbone of the colony's economy, fostering a Brazilian Gold Rush^[67] which attracted thousands of new settlers to Brazil from Portugal and all Portuguese colonies around the world.^[68] This increased level of immigration in turn caused some conflicts between newcomers and old settlers.^[69]

Portuguese expeditions known as Bandeiras gradually advanced the Portugal colonial original frontiers in South America to approximately the current Brazilian borders.^[70]^[71] In this era other European powers tried to colonize parts of Brazil, in incursions that the Portuguese had to fight, notably the French in Rio during the 1560s, in Maranhão during the 1610s, and the Dutch in Bahia and Pernambuco, during the Dutch–Portuguese War, after the end of Iberian Union.^[72]

The Portuguese colonial administration in Brazil had two objectives that would ensure colonial order and the monopoly of Portugal's wealthiest and largest colony: to keep under control and eradicate all forms of slave rebellion and resistance, such as the Quilombo of Palmares,^[73] and to repress all movements for autonomy or independence, such as the Minas Conspiracy.^[74]

United Kingdom with Portugal

In late 1807, Spanish and Napoleonic forces threatened the security of continental Portugal, causing Prince Regent João, in the name of Queen Maria I, to move the royal court from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro.^[75] There they established some of Brazil's first financial institutions, such as its local stock exchanges,^[76] and its National Bank, additionally ending the Portuguese monopoly on Brazilian trade and opening Brazil to other nations. In 1809, in retaliation for being forced into exile, the Prince Regent ordered the Portuguese conquest of French Guiana.^[77]

With the end of the Peninsular War in 1814, the courts of Europe demanded that Queen Maria I and Prince Regent João return to Portugal, deeming it unfit for the head of an ancient European monarchy to reside in a colony. In 1815, to justify continuing to live in Brazil, where the royal court had thrived for the prior six years, the Crown established the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, thus creating a pluricontinental transatlantic monarchic state.^[88] However, such a ploy didn't last long, since the leadership in Portugal, resentful of the new status of its larger colony, continued to require the return of court to Lisbon (as postulated by the Liberal Revolution of 1820), and also groups of Brazilians, impatient for practical and real changes, still demanded independence and a republic, as demonstrated by the 1817 Pernambucan Revolt.^[78]

In 1821, as a demand of revolutionaries who had taken the city of Porto,^[79] D. João VI was unable to hold out any longer, and departed for Lisbon. There he swore an oath to the new constitution, leaving his son, Prince Pedro de Alcântara, as Regent of the Kingdom of Brazil.^[80]

Independent empire

Tensions between Portuguese and Brazilians increased, and the Portuguese Cortes, guided by the new political regime imposed by the 1820 Liberal Revolution, tried to re-establish Brazil as a colony.^[81] The Brazilians refused to yield, and Prince Pedro decided to stand with them, declaring the country's independence from Portugal on 7 September 1822.^[82] A month later, Prince Pedro was declared the first Emperor of Brazil, with the royal title of Dom Pedro I, resulting in the foundation of the Empire of Brazil.^[83]

The Brazilian War of Independence, which had already begun along this process, spread through northern, northeastern regions and in Cisplatina province.^[84] The last Portuguese soldiers surrendered on 8 March 1824;^[85] Portugal officially recognized Brazil on 29 August 1825.^[86]

On 7 April 1831, worn down by years of administrative turmoil and political dissent with both liberal and conservative sides of politics, including an attempt of republican secession,{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|pp=82–83}} and unreconciled to the way that absolutists in Portugal had given in the succession of King John VI, Pedro I went to Portugal to reclaim his daughter's crown, abdicating the Brazilian throne in favor of his five-year-old son and heir (who thus became the Empire's second monarch, with the royal title of Dom Pedro II).^[87]

As the new Emperor could not exert his constitutional powers until he became of age, a regency was set up by the National Assembly.^[88] In the absence of a charismatic figure who could represent a moderate face of power, during this period a series of localized rebellions took place, such as the Cabanagem in Grão-Pará Province, the Malê Revolt in Salvador da Bahia, the Balaiada (Maranhão), the Sabinada (Bahia), and the Ragamuffin War beginning in Rio Grande do Sul and supported by Giuseppe Garibaldi. These emerged from the dissatisfaction of the provinces with the central power, coupled with old and latent social tensions peculiar to a vast, slaveholding and newly independent nation state.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, 2.1 to 2.3}} This period of internal political and social upheaval, which included the Praieira revolt in Pernambuco, was overcome only at the end of the 1840s, years after the end of the regency, which occurred with the premature coronation of Pedro II in 1841.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}

During the last phase of the monarchy, internal political debate centered on the issue of slavery. The Atlantic slave trade was abandoned in 1850,^[89] as a result of the British Aberdeen Act, but only in May 1888 after a long process of internal mobilization and debate for an ethical and legal dismantling of slavery in the country, was the institution formally abolished.^[90]

The foreign affairs in the monarchy were basically related to issues with the countries of the Southern Cone with which Brazil had borders. Long after the Cisplatine War that resulted in independence for Uruguay,^[91] Brazil won three international wars during the 58-year reign of Pedro II. These were the Platine War, the Uruguayan War and the devastating Paraguayan War, the largest war effort in Brazilian history.^[92]{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 2, p. 83, and 2.6 "The Paraguayan War"}}

Although there was no desire among the majority of Brazilians to change the country's form of government,{{sfn|Ermakoff|2006|p=189}} on 15 November 1889, in attrition with the majority of Army officers, as well as with rural and financial elites (for different reasons), the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup.^[93] 15 November is now Republic Day, a national holiday.^[94]

Early republic

The early republican government was nothing more than a military dictatorship, with army dominating affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|loc=end of Chapter 1, from p. 18 "Military rule"}} Only in 1894, following the unfoldings of two severe crises, an economic along with a military one, the civilians rose to power staying there until October 1930.{{sfnp|Smallman|2002|pp=21–26}}^[95]^[96]

If in relation to its foreign policy, the country in this first republican period maintained a relative balance characterized by a success in resolving border disputes with neighboring countries,^[97] only broken by the Acre War (1899–1902) and its involvement in World War I (1914–1918),^[98]^[99]^[100] followed by a failed attempt to exert a prominent role in the League of Nations;^[101] Internally, from the crisis of Encilhamento^[102]^[103]^[104] and the Armada Revolts,^[105] a prolonged cycle of financial, political and social instability began until the 1920s, keeping the country besieged by various rebellions, both civilian^[106]^[107]^[108] and military.^[109]^[110]^[111]

Little by little, a cycle of general instability sparked by these crises undermined the regime to such an extent, that in the wake of the murder of his running mate, the defeated opposition presidential candidate Getúlio Vargas supported by most of the military, successfully led the October 1930 Coup.^[112]^[113] Vargas and the military were supposed to assume power temporarily, but instead closed the Congress, extinguished the Constitution, ruled with emergency powers and replaced the states' governors with their own supporters.^[114]^[115]

In the 1930s, three failed attempts to remove Vargas and his supporters from power occurred. The first was the Constitutionalist Revolution in 1932, led by the Paulista oligarchy. The second was a Communist uprising in November 1935, and the last one a putsch attempt by local fascists in May 1938.^[116]^[117]^[118] The 1935 uprising created a security crisis in which the Congress transferred more power to the executive. The 1937 coup d'état resulted in the cancellation of the 1938 election, formalized Vargas as dictator, beginning the Estado Novo era, which was noted for government brutality and censorship of the press.^[119]

Foreign policy during Vargas years was marked by the antecedents and World War II. Brazil remained neutral until August 1942, when the country entered on the allied side,^[120]^[121] after suffering retaliation by Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, in a strategic dispute over the South Atlantic.^[122] In addition to its participation in the battle of the Atlantic, Brazil also sent an expeditionary force to fight in the Italian campaign.^[123]

With the Allied victory in 1945 and the end of the Nazi-fascist regimes in Europe, Vargas's position became unsustainable and he was swiftly overthrown in another military coup, with democracy "reinstated" by the same army that had ended it 15 years earlier.^[124] Vargas committed suicide in August 1954 amid a political crisis, after having returned to power by election in 1950.^[125]^[126]

Contemporary era

Several brief interim governments followed Vargas's suicide.^[127] Juscelino Kubitschek became president in 1956 and assumed a conciliatory posture towards the political opposition that allowed him to govern without major crises.^[128] The economy and industrial sector grew remarkably,^[129] but his greatest achievement was the construction of the new capital city of Brasília, inaugurated in 1960.^[130]

Kubitschek's successor, Jânio Quadros, resigned in 1961 less than a year after taking office.^[131] His vice-president, João Goulart, assumed the presidency, but aroused strong political opposition^[132] and was deposed in April 1964 by a coup that resulted in a military regime.^[133]

The new regime was intended to be transitory^[134] but gradually closed in on itself and became a full dictatorship with the promulgation of the Fifth Institutional Act in 1968.^[135] Oppression was not limited to those who resorted to guerrilla tactics to fight the regime, but also reached institutional opponents, artists, journalists and other members of civil society,{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395], last paragraph}}^[136] inside and outside the country through the infamous "Operation Condor".^[137]{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA396 396]}} Despite its brutality, like other authoritarian regimes, due to an economic boom, known as an "economic miracle", the regime reached a peak in popularity in the early 1970s.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA395 395–97]}}

Slowly however, the wear and tear of years of dictatorial power that had not slowed the repression, even after the defeat of the leftist guerrillas,^[138] plus the inability to deal with the economic crises of the period and popular pressure, made an opening policy inevitable, which from the regime side was led by Generals Ernesto Geisel and Golbery do Couto e Silva.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Chapter 6 "The military government and the transition to democracy (1964–1984)"}} With the enactment of the Amnesty Law in 1979, Brazil began a slow return to democracy, which was completed during the 1980s.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999}}

Civilians returned to power in 1985 when José Sarney assumed the presidency. He became unpopular during his tenure through failure to control the economic crisis and hyperinflation he inherited from the military regime.^[139] Sarney's unsuccessful government led to the election in 1989 of the almost-unknown Fernando Collor, subsequently impeached by the National Congress in 1992.^[140]

Collor was succeeded by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, who appointed Fernando Henrique Cardoso Minister of Finance. In 1994, Cardoso produced a highly successful Plano Real,^[141] that, after decades of failed economic plans made by previous governments attempting to curb hyperinflation, finally stabilized the Brazilian economy.{{sfnp|Fausto|1999|loc=Epilogue}}^[142] Cardoso won the 1994 election, and again in 1998.^[143]

The peaceful transition of power from Cardoso to his main opposition leader, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (elected in 2002 and re-elected in 2006), was seen as proof that Brazil had achieved a long-sought political stability.^[144]^[145] However, sparked by indignation and frustrations accumulated over decades from corruption, police brutality, inefficiencies of the political establishment and public service, numerous peaceful protests erupted in Brazil from the middle of first term of Dilma Rousseff, who had succeeded Lula after winning election in 2010.^[146]^[147]

Enhanced by political and economic crises with evidence of involvement by politicians from all the primary political parties in several bribery and tax evasion schemes,^[148]^[149] with large street protests for and against her,^[150] Rousseff was impeached by the Brazilian Congress in 2016.^[151]^[152] In 2017, the Supreme Court asked for the investigation of 71 Brazilian lawmakers and nine ministers in President Michel Temer's cabinet allegedly linked to the Petrobras corruption scandal.^[153] President Temer is himself accused of corruption.^[154] In 2018, 62% of the population on a poll claimed that corruption was Brazil's biggest problem.^[155]

Geography

Brazil occupies a large area along the eastern coast of South America and includes much of the continent's interior,^[156] sharing land borders with Uruguay to the south; Argentina and Paraguay to the southwest; Bolivia and Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and France (French overseas region of French Guiana) to the north. It shares a border with every South American country except Ecuador and Chile.^[16]

It also encompasses a number of oceanic archipelagos, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz.^[16] Its size, relief, climate, and natural resources make Brazil geographically diverse.^[156] Including its Atlantic islands, Brazil lies between latitudes 6°N and 34°S, and longitudes 28° and 74°W.^[16]

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, and third largest in the Americas, with a total area of {{convert|8515767.049|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}},^[157] including {{convert|55455|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} of water.^[16] It spans four time zones; from UTC−5 comprising the state of Acre and the westernmost portion of Amazonas, to UTC−4 in the western states, to UTC−3 in the eastern states (the national time) and UTC−2 in the Atlantic islands.^[158]

Brazil is the only country in the world that has the equator and the Tropic of Capricorn running through it. Brazilian topography is also diverse and includes hills, mountains, plains, highlands, and scrublands. Much of the terrain lies between {{convert|200|m}} and {{convert|800|m}} in elevation.^[159] The main upland area occupies most of the southern half of the country.^[159] The northwestern parts of the plateau consist of broad, rolling terrain broken by low, rounded hills.^[159]

The southeastern section is more rugged, with a complex mass of ridges and mountain ranges reaching elevations of up to {{convert|1200|m}}.^[159] These ranges include the Mantiqueira and Espinhaço mountains and the Serra do Mar.^[159]

In the north, the Guiana Highlands form a major drainage divide, separating rivers that flow south into the Amazon Basin from rivers that empty into the Orinoco River system, in Venezuela, to the north. The highest point in Brazil is the Pico da Neblina at {{convert|2994|m}}, and the lowest is the Atlantic Ocean.^[16]

Brazil has a dense and complex system of rivers, one of the world's most extensive, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the Atlantic.^[160] Major rivers include the Amazon (the world's second-longest river and the largest in terms of volume of water), the Paraná and its major tributary the Iguaçu (which includes the Iguazu Falls), the Negro, São Francisco, Xingu, Madeira and Tapajós rivers.^[160]

Climate

The climate of Brazil comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large area and varied topography, but most of the country is tropical.^[16] According to the Köppen system, Brazil hosts six major climatic subtypes: desert, equatorial, tropical, semiarid, oceanic and subtropical. The different climatic conditions produce environments ranging from equatorial rainforests in the north and semiarid deserts in the northeast, to temperate coniferous forests in the south and tropical savannas in central Brazil.^[161] Many regions have starkly different microclimates.^[162]^[163]

An equatorial climate characterizes much of northern Brazil. There is no real dry season, but there are some variations in the period of the year when most rain falls.^[161] Temperatures average {{convert|25|°C}},^[163] with more significant temperature variation between night and day than between seasons.^[162]

Over central Brazil rainfall is more seasonal, characteristic of a savanna climate.^[162] This region is as extensive as the Amazon basin but has a very different climate as it lies farther south at a higher altitude.^[161] In the interior northeast, seasonal rainfall is even more extreme.^[192]

The semiarid climatic region generally receives less than {{convert|800|mm|1}} of rain,^[164] most of which generally falls in a period of three to five months of the year^[165] and occasionally less than this, creating long periods of drought.^[162] Brazil's 1877–78 Grande Seca (Great Drought), the worst in Brazil's history,^[166] caused approximately half a million deaths.^[167] A similarly devastating drought occurred in 1915.^[168]

South of Bahia, near the coasts, and more southerly most of the state of São Paulo, the distribution of rainfall changes, with rain falling throughout the year.^[161] The south enjoys subtropical conditions, with cool winters and average annual temperatures not exceeding {{convert|18|°C|1}};^[163] winter frosts and snowfall are not rare in the highest areas.^[161]^[162]

Biodiversity and environment

Brazil's large territory comprises different ecosystems, such as the Amazon rainforest, recognized as having the greatest biological diversity in the world,^[169] with the Atlantic Forest and the Cerrado, sustaining the greatest biodiversity.^[170] In the south, the Araucaria pine forest grows under temperate conditions.^[170] The rich wildlife of Brazil reflects the variety of natural habitats. Scientists estimate that the total number of plant and animal species in Brazil could approach four million, mostly invertebrates.^[170]

Larger mammals include carnivores pumas, jaguars, ocelots, rare bush dogs, and foxes, and herbivores peccaries, tapirs, anteaters, sloths, opossums, and armadillos. Deer are plentiful in the south, and many species of New World monkeys are found in the northern rain forests.^[170]^[171] Concern for the environment has grown in response to global interest in environmental issues.^[172] Brazil's Amazon Basin is home to an extremely diverse array of fish species, including the red-bellied piranha. Despite its reputation as a ferocious freshwater fish, the red-bellied piranha is actually a generally timid scavenger.

Biodiversity can contribute to agriculture, livestock, forestry and fisheries extraction. However, almost all economically exploited species of plants, such as soybeans and coffee, or animals, such as chickens, are imported from other countries, and the economic use of native species still crawls. In the Brazilian GDP, the forest sector represents just over 1% and fishing 0.4%.

The natural heritage of Brazil is severely threatened by cattle ranching and agriculture, logging, mining, resettlement, oil and gas extraction, over-fishing, wildlife trade, dams and infrastructure, water pollution, climate change, fire, and invasive species.^[169] In many areas of the country, the natural environment is threatened by development.^[173]

The construction of highways has opened up previously remote areas for agriculture and settlement; dams have flooded valleys and inundated wildlife habitats; and mines have scarred and polluted the landscape.^[172]^[174] At least 70 dams are said to be planned for the Amazon region, including the controversial Belo Monte hydroelectric dam.^[175]

Government and politics

The form of government is a democratic federative republic, with a presidential system.^[17] The president is both head of state and head of government of the Union and is elected for a four-year term,^[17] with the possibility of re-election for a second successive term. The current president is Jair Bolsonaro. The previous president, Michel Temer, replaced Dilma Rousseff after her impeachment.^[176] The President appoints the Ministers of State, who assist in government.^[17] Legislative houses in each political entity are the main source of law in Brazil. The National Congress is the Federation's bicameral legislature, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Judiciary authorities exercise jurisdictional duties almost exclusively. Brazil is a democracy, according to the Democracy Index 2010.^[177]

The political-administrative organization of the Federative Republic of Brazil comprises the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities.^[17] The Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities, are the "spheres of government". The federation is set on five fundamental principles:^[17] sovereignty, citizenship, dignity of human beings, the social values of labour and freedom of enterprise, and political pluralism. The classic tripartite branches of government (executive, legislative and judicial under a checks and balances system) are formally established by the Constitution.^[17] The executive and legislative are organized independently in all three spheres of government, while the judiciary is organized only at the federal and state and Federal District spheres.

All members of the executive and legislative branches are directly elected.^[178]^[179]^[180] Judges and other judicial officials are appointed after passing entry exams.^[178] For most of its democratic history, Brazil has had a multi-party system, proportional representation. Voting is compulsory for the literate between 18 and 70 years old and optional for illiterates and those between 16 and 18 or beyond 70.^[17]

Together with several smaller parties, four political parties stand out: Workers' Party (PT), Brazilian Social Democracy Party (PSDB), Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB) and Democrats (DEM). Fifteen political parties are represented in Congress. It is common for politicians to switch parties, and thus the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly.^[181] Almost all governmental and administrative functions are exercised by authorities and agencies affiliated to the Executive.

Law

Brazilian law is based on the civil law legal system^[182] and civil law concepts prevail over common law practice. Most of Brazilian law is codified, although non-codified statutes also represent a substantial part, playing a complementary role. Court decisions set out interpretive guidelines; however, they are seldom binding on other specific cases. Doctrinal works and the works of academic jurists have strong influence in law creation and in law cases.

The legal system is based on the Federal Constitution, promulgated on 5 October 1988, and is the fundamental law of Brazil. All other legislation and court decisions must conform to its rules.^[183] {{As of|2007|04}}, there have been 53 amendments. States have their own constitutions, which must not contradict the Federal Constitution.^[184] Municipalities and the Federal District have "organic laws" ({{lang|pt|leis orgânicas}}), which act in a similar way to constitutions.^[185] Legislative entities are the main source of statutes, although in certain matters judiciary and executive bodies may enact legal norms.^[17] Jurisdiction is administered by the judiciary entities, although in rare situations the Federal Constitution allows the Federal Senate to pass on legal judgments.^[17] There are also specialized military, labor, and electoral courts.^[17] The highest court is the Supreme Federal Court.

This system has been criticized over the last few decades for the slow pace of decision-making. Lawsuits on appeal may take several years to resolve, and in some cases more than a decade elapses before definitive rulings.^[186] Nevertheless, the Supreme Federal Tribunal was the first court in the world to transmit its sessions on television, and also via YouTube.^[187]^[188] More recently, in December 2009, the Supreme Court adopted Twitter to display items on the day planner of the ministers, to inform the daily actions of the Court and the most important decisions made by them.^[189]

Military

The armed forces of Brazil are the largest in Latin America by active personnel and the largest in terms of military equipment.^[190] It consists of the Brazilian Army (including the Army Aviation Command), the Brazilian Navy (including the Marine Corps and Naval Aviation), and the Brazilian Air Force. Brazil's conscription policy gives it one of the world's largest military forces, estimated at more than 1.6 million reservists annually.^[191]

Numbering close to 236,000 active personnel,^[192] the Brazilian Army has the largest number of armored vehicles in South America, including armored transports and tanks.^[243] It is also unique in Latin America for its large, elite forces specializing in unconventional missions, the Brazilian Special Operations Command,^[193]^[194]^[195] and the versatile Strategic Rapid Action Force, made up of highly mobilized and prepared Special Operations Brigade, Infantry Brigade Parachutist,^[196]^[197] 1st Jungle Infantry Battalion (Airmobile)^[198] and 12th Brigade Light Infantry (Airmobile)^[199] able to act anywhere in the country, on short notice, to counter external aggression.^[200] The states' Military Police and the Military Firefighters Corps are described as an ancillary forces of the Army by the constitution, but are under the control of each state's governor.^[17]

Brazil's navy, the second-largest in the Americas, once operated some of the most powerful warships in the world with the two {{Sclass-|Minas Geraes|battleship|0}} dreadnoughts, which sparked a South American dreadnought race between Argentina, Brazil, and Chile.^[201] Today, it is a green water force and has a group of specialized elite in retaking ships and naval facilities, GRUMEC, unit specially trained to protect Brazilian oil platforms along its coast.^[202] It's the only navy in Latin America that operates an aircraft carrier, NAe São Paulo,^[203] and one of the ten navies of the world to operate one.^[204]

The Air Force is the largest in Latin America and has about 700 manned aircraft in service and effective about 67,000 personnel.^[205]

Brazil has not been invaded since 1865 during the Paraguayan War.^[206] Additionally, Brazil has no contested territorial disputes with any of its neighbours^[207] and neither does it have rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other.^[208]^[209] The Brazilian military has also three times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government.^[210] It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti, East Timor and Central African Republic.^[211]^[212]

Foreign policy

Brazil's international relations are based on Article 4 of the Federal Constitution, which establishes non-intervention, self-determination, international cooperation and the peaceful settlement of conflicts as the guiding principles of Brazil's relationship with other countries and multilateral organizations.^[213]

According to the Constitution, the President has ultimate authority over foreign policy, while the Congress is tasked with reviewing and considering all diplomatic nominations and international treaties, as well as legislation relating to Brazilian foreign policy.^[214]

Brazil's foreign policy is a by-product of the country's unique position as a regional power in Latin America, a leader among developing countries, and an emerging world power.^[215] Brazilian foreign policy has generally been based on the principles of multilateralism, peaceful dispute settlement, and non-intervention in the affairs of other countries.^[216]

Brazil is a founding member state of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, and international organization and political association of Lusophone nations across four continents, where Portuguese is an official language.

An increasingly well-developed tool of Brazil's foreign policy is providing aid as a donor to other developing countries.^[217] Brazil does not just use its growing economic strength to provide financial aid, but it also provides high levels of expertise and most importantly of all, a quiet non-confrontational diplomacy to improve governance levels.^[217] Total aid is estimated to be around $1 billion per year that includes:^[217]

In addition, Brazil manages a peacekeeping mission in Haiti ($350 million) and makes in-kind contributions to the World Food Programme ($300 million).^[217] This is in addition to humanitarian assistance and contributions to multilateral development agencies. The scale of this aid places it on par with China and India.^[217] The Brazilian South-South aid has been described as a "global model in waiting."^[218]

Law enforcement and crime

In Brazil, the Constitution establishes five different police agencies for law enforcement: Federal Police Department, Federal Highway Police, Federal Railroad Police, Military Police and Civil Police. Of these, the first three are affiliated with federal authorities and the last two are subordinate to state governments. All police forces are the responsibility of the executive branch of any of the federal or state powers.^[17] The National Public Security Force also can act in public disorder situations arising anywhere in the country.^[219]

The country still has above-average levels of violent crime and particularly high levels of gun violence and homicide. In 2012, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated the number of 32 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, one of the highest rates of homicide of the world.^[220] The number considered tolerable by the WHO is about 10 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.^[221] However, there are differences between the crime rates in the Brazilian states. While in São Paulo the homicide rate registered in 2013 was 10.8 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, in Alagoas it was 64.7 homicides per 100,000 inhabitants.^[222]

Brazil also has high levels of incarceration and the third largest prison population in the world (behind only China and the United States), with an estimated total of approximately 700,000 prisoners around the country (June 2014), an increase of about 300% compared to the index registered in 1992.^[223] The high number of prisoners eventually overloaded the Brazilian prison system, leading to a shortfall of about two hundred thousand accommodations.^[224]

Administrative divisions

Brazil is a federation composed of 26 states, one federal district, and the 5570 municipalities.^[17] States have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Federal government. They have a governor and a unicameral legislative body elected directly by their voters. They also have independent Courts of Law for common justice. Despite this, states have much less autonomy to create their own laws than in the United States. For example, criminal and civil laws can be voted by only the federal bicameral Congress and are uniform throughout the country.^[17]

The states and the federal district may be grouped into regions: Northern, Northeast, Central-West, Southeast and Southern. The Brazilian regions are merely geographical, not political or administrative divisions, and they do not have any specific form of government. Although defined by law, Brazilian regions are useful mainly for statistical purposes, and also to define the distribution of federal funds in development projects.

Municipalities, as the states, have autonomous administrations, collect their own taxes and receive a share of taxes collected by the Union and state government.^[17] Each has a mayor and an elected legislative body, but no separate Court of Law. Indeed, a Court of Law organized by the state can encompass many municipalities in a single justice administrative division called comarca (county).

Economy

Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the world's eighth largest economy and the eighth largest in purchasing power parity (PPP) according to the 2017 estimates. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. After rapid growth in preceding decades, the country entered an ongoing recession in 2014 amid a political corruption scandal and nationwide protests.

Its GDP (PPP) per capita was $15,919 in 2017^[225] putting Brazil in the 77th position according to IMF data. Active in agricultural, mining, manufacturing and service sectors Brazil has a labor force of over 107 million (ranking 6th worldwide) and unemployment of 6.2% (ranking 64th worldwide).^[226]

The country has been expanding its presence in international financial and commodities markets, and is one of a group of four emerging economies called the BRIC countries.^[227] Brazil has been the world's largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years.^[228]

Brazil's diversified economy includes agriculture, industry, and a wide range of services.^[231] Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 5.1% of the gross domestic product in 2007.^[232] Brazil is one of the largest producer of oranges, coffee, sugar cane, cassava and sisal, soybeans and papayas.^[233]

The industry – from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft and consumer durables – accounted for 30.8% of the gross domestic product.^[232] Industry is highly concentrated in metropolitan São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Campinas, Porto Alegre, and Belo Horizonte.^[234] Brazil has become the fourth largest car market in the world.^[235] Major export products include aircraft, electrical equipment, automobiles, ethanol, textiles, footwear, iron ore, steel, coffee, orange juice, soybeans and corned beef.^[236] In total, Brazil ranks 23rd worldwide in value of exports.

Brazil pegged its currency, the real, to the U.S. dollar in 1994. However, after the East Asian financial crisis, the Russian default in 1998^[237] and the series of adverse financial events that followed it, the Central Bank of Brazil temporarily changed its monetary policy to a managed-float^[238] scheme while undergoing a currency crisis, until definitively changing the exchange regime to free-float in January 1999.^[239]

Brazil received an International Monetary Fund rescue package in mid-2002 of $30.4 billion,^[240] then a record sum. Brazil's central bank paid back the IMF loan in 2005, although it was not due to be repaid until 2006.^[241] One of the issues the Central Bank of Brazil recently dealt with was an excess of speculative short-term capital inflows to the country, which may have contributed to a fall in the value of the U.S. dollar against the real during that period.^[242] Nonetheless, foreign direct investment (FDI), related to long-term, less speculative investment in production, is estimated to be $193.8 billion for 2007.^[243] Inflation monitoring and control currently plays a major part in the Central bank's role of setting out short-term interest rates as a monetary policy measure.^[244]

Between 1993 and 2010, 7012 mergers & acquisitions with a total known value of $707 billion with the involvement of Brazilian firms have been announced.^[245] The year 2010 was a new record in terms of value with US$115 billion of transactions. The largest transaction with involvement of Brazilian companies has been: Cia. Vale do Rio Doce acquired Inco in a tender offer valued at US$18.9 billion.

Corruption costs Brazil almost $41 billion a year alone in 2010, with 69.9% of the country's firms identifying the issue as a major constraint in successfully penetrating the global market.^[246] Local government corruption is so prevalent that voters perceive it as a problem only if it surpasses certain levels, and only if a local media e.g. a radio station is present to divulge the findings of corruption charges.^[247] Initiatives, like this exposure, strengthen awareness which is indicated by the Transparency International's Corruption Perceptions Index; ranking Brazil 69th out of 178 countries in 2012.^[248]

Brazil also has a large cooperative sector that provides 50% of the food in the country.^[250] The worlds largest healthcare cooperative Unimed is also located in Brazil, and accounts for 32% of the healthcare insurance market in the country.^[251]

Energy

Brazil is the world's tenth largest energy consumer with much of its energy coming from renewable sources, particularly hydroelectricity and ethanol; the Itaipu Dam is the world's largest hydroelectric plant by energy generation.^[252] The first car with an ethanol engine was produced in 1978 and the first airplane engine running on ethanol in 2005.^[253]

Recent oil discoveries in the Pre-salt layer have opened the door for a large increase in oil production.^[254] The governmental agencies responsible for the energy policy are the Ministry of Mines and Energy, the National Council for Energy Policy, the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels, and the National Agency of Electricity.^[255]

Tourism

Tourism in Brazil is a growing sector and key to the economy of several regions of the country. The country had 6.36 million visitors in 2015, ranking in terms of the international tourist arrivals as the main destination in South America and second in Latin America after Mexico.^[257] Revenues from international tourists reached {{USD|6}} billion in 2010, showing a recovery from the 2008–2009 economic crisis.^[258] Historical records of 5.4 million visitors and {{USD|6.8}} billion in receipts were reached in 2011.^[259]^[260]

Natural areas are its most popular tourism product, a combination of ecotourism with leisure and recreation, mainly sun and beach, and adventure travel, as well as cultural tourism. Among the most popular destinations are the Amazon Rainforest, beaches and dunes in the Northeast Region, the Pantanal in the Center-West Region, beaches at Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina, cultural tourism in Minas Gerais and business trips to São Paulo city.^[261]

In terms of the 2015 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI), which is a measurement of the factors that make it attractive to develop business in the travel and tourism industry of individual countries, Brazil ranked in the 28st place at the world's level, third in the Americas, after Canada and United States.^[262]^[263]

Brazil's main competitive advantages are its natural resources, which ranked 1st on this criteria out of all countries considered, and ranked 23rd for its cultural resources, due to its many World Heritage sites. The TTCI report notes Brazil's main weaknesses: its ground transport infrastructure remains underdeveloped (ranked 116th), with the quality of roads ranking in 105th place; and the country continues to suffer from a lack of price competitiveness (ranked 114th), due in part to high ticket taxes and airport charges, as well as high prices and high taxation. Safety and security have improved significantly: 75th in 2011, up from 128th in 2008.^[263]

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO), international travel to Brazil accelerated in 2000, particularly during 2004 and 2005. However, in 2006 a slow-down took place, and international arrivals had almost no growth in 2007–08.^[264]^[265]^[266]

In spite of this trend, revenues from international tourism continued to rise, from USD 4 billion in 2005 to 5 billion in 2007, despite 330 000 fewer arrivals. This favorable trend is the result of the strong devaluation of the US dollar against the Brazilian Real, which began in 2004, but which makes Brazil a more expensive international destination.^[267]

This trend changed in 2009, when both visitors and revenues fell as a result of the Great Recession of 2008–09.^[268] By 2010, the industry had recovered, and arrivals grew above 2006 levels to 5.2 million international visitors, and receipts from these visitors reached US$6 billion.^[258] In 2011 the historical record was reached with 5.4 million visitors and {{USD|6.8}} billion in receipts.^[259]^[260]

Despite continuing record-breaking international tourism revenues, the number of Brazilian tourists travelling overseas has been growing steadily since 2003, resulting in a net negative foreign exchange balance, as more money is spent abroad by Brazilians than comes in as receipts from international tourists visiting Brazil.^[334]

Tourism expenditures abroad grew from US$5.8 billion in 2006, to US$8.2 billion in 2007, a 42% increase, representing a net deficit of US$3.3 billion in 2007, as compared to US$1.5 billion in 2006, a 125% increase from the previous year.^[269] This trend is caused by Brazilians taking advantage of the stronger Real to travel and making relatively cheaper expenditures abroad.^[269] Brazilians traveling overseas in 2006 represented 4% of the country's population.^[270]

In 2005, tourism contributed with 3.2% of the country's revenues from exports of goods and services, and represented 7% of direct and indirect employment in the Brazilian economy.^[271] In 2006 direct employment in the sector reached 1.9 million people.^[272]

Domestic tourism is a fundamental market segment for the industry, as 51 million people traveled throughout the country in 2005,^[273] and direct revenues from Brazilian tourists reached US$22 billion,^[274] 5.6 times more receipts than international tourists in 2005.

In 2005, Rio de Janeiro, Foz do Iguaçu, São Paulo, Florianópolis and Salvador were the most visited cities by international tourists for leisure trips. The most popular destinations for business trips were São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porto Alegre.^[275] In 2006 Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza were the most popular destinations for business trips.

Infrastructure

Science and technology

Technological research in Brazil is largely carried out in public universities and research institutes, with the majority of funding for basic research coming from various government agencies.^[276] Brazil's most esteemed technological hubs are the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, the Butantan Institute, the Air Force's Aerospace Technical Center, the Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation and the INPE.^[277]^[278]

The Brazilian Space Agency has the most advanced space program in Latin America, with significant resources to launch vehicles, and manufacture of satellite.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vP9jHaoL_s4C&pg=PA628 628]}} Owner of relative technological sophistication, the country develops submarines, aircraft, as well as being involved in space research, having a Vehicle Launch Center Light and being the only country in the Southern Hemisphere the integrate team building International Space Station (ISS).^[279]

The country is also a pioneer in the search for oil in deep water, from where it extracts 73% of its reserves.

Brazil is one of the three countries in Latin America^[282] with an operational Synchrotron Laboratory, a research facility on physics, chemistry, material science and life sciences, and Brazil is the only Latin American country to have a semiconductor company with its own fabrication plant, the CEITEC.^[283] According to the Global Information Technology Report 2009-2010 of the World Economic Forum, Brazil is the world's 61st largest developer of information technology.^[284]

Brazil also has a large number of outstanding scientific personalities. Among the most renowned Brazilian inventors are priests Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Landell de Moura and Francisco João de Azevedo, besides Alberto Santos-Dumont,^[285] Evaristo Conrado Engelberg,^[286] Manuel Dias de Abreu,^[287] Andreas Pavel^[288] and Nélio José Nicolai.^[289]

Brazilian science is represented by the likes of César Lattes (Brazilian physicist Pathfinder of Pi Meson),^[290] Mário Schenberg (considered the greatest theoretical physicist of Brazil),^[291] José Leite Lopes (only Brazilian physicist holder of UNESCO Science Prize),^[292] Artur Ávila (the first Latin American winner of Fields Medal)^[293] and Fritz Müller (pioneer in factual support of the theory of evolution by Charles Darwin).^[294]

Transport

Brazilian roads are the primary carriers of freight and passenger traffic. The road system totaled 1.98 million km (1.23 million mi) in 2002. The total of paved roads increased from {{convert|35496|km|0|abbr=on}} (22,056 mi) in 1967 to {{convert|184140|km|0|abbr=on}} (114,425 mi) in 2002.^[297]

The first investments in road infrastructure have given up in the 1920s, the government of Washington Luis, being pursued in the governments of Getúlio Vargas and Eurico Gaspar Dutra.^[298] President Juscelino Kubitschek (1956–61), who designed and built the capital Brasília, was another supporter of highways. Kubitschek was responsible for the installation of major car manufacturers in the country (Volkswagen, Ford and General Motors arrived in Brazil during his rule) and one of the points used to attract them was support for the construction of highways. With the implementation of Fiat in 1976 ending an automobile market closed loop, from the end of the 1990s the country has received large foreign direct investments installing in its territory other major car manufacturers and utilities, such as Iveco, Renault, Peugeot, Citroen, Honda, Mitsubishi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Hyundai, Toyota among others.^[299] Brazil is the seventh most important country in the auto industry.^[300]

Brazil's railway system has been declining since 1945, when emphasis shifted to highway construction. The total length of railway track was {{convert|30875|km|0|abbr=on}} in 2002, as compared with {{convert|31848|km|0|abbr=on}} in 1970. Most of the railway system belonged to the Federal Railroad Corporation RFFSA, which was privatized in 2007.^[301] The São Paulo Metro was the first underground transit system in Brazil. The other metro systems are in Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Recife, Belo Horizonte, Brasília, Teresina and Fortaleza.

The country has an extensive rail network of {{convert|28538|km|abbr=off}} in length, the tenth largest network in the world.^[302] Currently, the Brazilian government, unlike the past, seeks to encourage this mode of transport; an example of this incentive is the project of the Rio–São Paulo high-speed rail, that will connect the two main cities of the country to carry passengers.

There are about 2,500 airports in Brazil, including landing fields: the second largest number in the world, after the United States.^[303] São Paulo–Guarulhos International Airport, near São Paulo, is the largest and busiest airport with nearly 20 million passengers annually, while handling the vast majority of commercial traffic for the country.^[304]

For freight transport waterways are of importance, e.g. the industrial zones of Manaus can be reached only by means of the Solimões–Amazonas waterway ({{convert|3250|km|abbr=off}} with {{convert|6|m|abbr=off}} minimum depth). The country also has {{convert|50000|km|abbr=off}} of waterways.^[302]

Coastal shipping links widely separated parts of the country. Bolivia and Paraguay have been given free ports at Santos. Of the 36 deep-water ports, Santos, Itajaí, Rio Grande, Paranaguá, Rio de Janeiro, Sepetiba, Vitória, Suape, Manaus and São Francisco do Sul are the most important.^[305] Bulk carriers have to wait up to 18 days before being serviced, container ships 36,3 hours on average.^[306]

Health

The Brazilian public health system, the Unified Health System (SUS), is managed and provided by all levels of government,^[308] being the largest system of this type in the world.^[309] On the other hand, private healthcare systems play a complementary role.^[310]

Public health services are universal and offered to all citizens of the country for free. However, the construction and maintenance of health centers and hospitals are financed by taxes, and the country spends about 9% of its GDP on expenditures in the area. In 2012, Brazil had 1.85 doctors and 2.3 hospital beds for every 1,000 inhabitants.^[311]^[312]

Despite all the progress made since the creation of the universal health care system in 1988, there are still several public health problems in Brazil. In 2006, the main points to be solved were the high infant (2.51%) and maternal mortality rates (73.1 deaths per 1000 births).^[381]

The number of deaths from noncommunicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (151.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants) and cancer (72.7 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants), also has a considerable impact on the health of the Brazilian population. Finally, external but preventable factors such as car accidents, violence and suicide caused 14.9% of all deaths in the country.^[313] The Brazilian health system was ranked 125th among the 191 countries evaluated by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2000.^[314]

Education

The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the Union, the states, the Federal District, and the municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education.^[315]

According to the IBGE, in 2011, the literacy rate of the population was 90.4%, meaning that 13 million (9.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country; functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population.^[316] Illiteracy is highest in the Northeast, where 19.9% of the population is illiterate.^[317]

Higher education starts with undergraduate or sequential courses, which may offer different options of specialization in academic or professional careers. Depending on the choice, students can improve their educational background with courses of post-graduate studies or broad sense.

Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten, elementary and medium educations are required of all students, provided the student does not hold any disability, whether physical, mental, visual or hearing.

The University of São Paulo is the second best university in Latin America, according to recent 2019 QS World University Rankings. Of the top 20 Latin Americans universities, eight are Brazilian. Most of them are public.^[318]

Media and communication{{anchor|Media}}

The Brazilian press had its beginnings in 1808 with the arrival of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil, hitherto forbidden any activity of the press – was the publication of newspapers or books. The Brazilian press was officially born in Rio de Janeiro on 13 May 1808, with the creation of the Royal Printing, National Press by the Prince Regent Dom João.^[320]

The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in the country, began to circulate on 10 September 1808.^[321] The largest newspapers nowadays are Folha de S.Paulo (from the state of São Paulo), Super Notícia (Minas Gerais 296.799), O Globo (RJ 277.876) and O Estado de S. Paulo (SP 235.217).^[322]

Radio broadcasting began on 7 September 1922, with a speech by then President Pessoa, and was formalized on 20 April 1923 with the creation of "Radio Society of Rio de Janeiro."^[323]

Television in Brazil began officially on 18 September 1950, with the founding of TV Tupi by Assis Chateaubriand.^[324] Since then television has grown in the country, creating large public networks such as Globo, SBT, Record and Bandeirantes. Today it is the most important factor in popular culture of Brazilian society, indicated by research showing that as much as 67%^[325]^[326] of the general population follow the same daily soap opera broadcast. Digital Television, using the SBTVD standard (based on the Japanese standard ISDB-T), was adopted 29 June 2006 and launched on 2 November 2007.^[327] In May 2010, Brazil launched TV Brasil Internacional, an international television station, initially broadcasting to 49 countries.^[328]

Demographics

The population of Brazil, as recorded by the 2008 PNAD, was approximately 190 million^[329] ({{convert|22.31|PD/km2|disp=or|abbr=out}}), with a ratio of men to women of 0.95:1^[330] and 83.75% of the population defined as urban.^[331] The population is heavily concentrated in the Southeastern (79.8 million inhabitants) and Northeastern (53.5 million inhabitants) regions, while the two most extensive regions, the Center-West and the North, which together make up 64.12% of the Brazilian territory, have a total of only 29.1 million inhabitants.

The first census in Brazil was carried out in 1872 and recorded a population of 9,930,478.^[332] From 1880 to 1930, 4 million Europeans arrived.^[333] Brazil's population increased significantly between 1940 and 1970, because of a decline in the mortality rate, even though the birth rate underwent a slight decline. In the 1940s the annual population growth rate was 2.4%, rising to 3.0% in the 1950s and remaining at 2.9% in the 1960s, as life expectancy rose from 44 to 54 years^[334] and to 72.6 years in 2007.^[335]

It has been steadily falling since the 1960s, from 3.04% per year between 1950 and 1960 to 1.05% in 2008 and is expected to fall to a negative value of –0.29% by 2050^[336] thus completing the demographic transition.^[337]

In 2008, the illiteracy rate was 11.48%^[338] and among the youth (ages 15–19) 1.74%. It was highest (20.30%) in the Northeast, which had a large proportion of rural poor.^[339] Illiteracy was high (24.18%) among the rural population and lower (9.05%) among the urban population.^[340]

Race and ethnicity

According to the National Research by Household Sample (PNAD) of 2008, 48.43% of the population (about 92 million) described themselves as White; 43.80% (about 83 million) as Pardo (brown), 6.84% (about 13 million) as Black; 0.58% (about 1.1 million) as Asian; and 0.28% (about 536 thousand) as Amerindian (officially called indígena, Indigenous), while 0.07% (about 130 thousand) did not declare their race.^[342]

In 2007, the National Indian Foundation estimated that Brazil has 67 different uncontacted tribes, up from their estimate of 40 in 2005. Brazil is believed to have the largest number of uncontacted peoples in the world.^[343]

Since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500, considerable miscegenation between Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans has taken place in all regions of the country (with European ancestry being dominant nationwide according to the vast majority of all autosomal studies undertaken covering the entire population, accounting for between 65% to 77%).^[344]^[345]^[346]^[347]

Brazilian society is more markedly divided by social class lines, although a high income disparity is found between race groups, so racism and classism can be conflated. Socially significant closeness to one racial group is taken in account more in the basis of appearance (phenotypes) rather than ancestry, to the extent that full siblings can pertain to different "racial" groups.^[351] Socioeconomic factors are also significant, because a minority of pardos are likely to start declaring themselves White or Black if socially upward.^[352] Skin color and facial features do not line quite well with ancestry (usually, Afro-Brazilians are evenly mixed and European ancestry is dominant in Whites and pardos with a significant non-European contribution, but the individual variation is great).^[347]^[353]^[354]^[355]

The brown population (officially called pardo in Portuguese, also colloquially moreno)^[356]^[357] is a broad category that includes caboclos (assimilated Amerindians in general, and descendants of Whites and Natives), mulatos (descendants of primarily Whites and Afro-Brazilians) and cafuzos (descendants of Afro-Brazilians and Natives).^[356]^[357]^[358]^[359]^[360] People of considerable Amerindian ancestry form the majority of the population in the Northern, Northeastern and Center-Western regions.^[361]

Higher percents of Blacks, mulattoes and tri-racials can be found in the eastern coast of the Northeastern region from Bahia to Paraíba^[360]^[362] and also in northern Maranhão,^[363]^[364] southern Minas Gerais^[365] and in eastern Rio de Janeiro.^[360]^[365] From the 19th century, Brazil opened its borders to immigration. About five million people from over 60 countries migrated to Brazil between 1808 and 1972, most of them of Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Ukrainian, Polish, Jewish, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Arab origin.^[366]^[367]

Religion

Religion in Brazil was formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved African peoples and indigenous peoples.^[368] This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholic Church, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities,^[369] and in some instances, Allan Kardec's Spiritism (a religion which incorporates elements of spiritualism and Christianity). Religious pluralism increased during the 20th century,^[370] and the Protestant community has grown to include over 22% of the population.^[371] The most common Protestant denominations are Pentecostal and Evangelical ones. Other Protestant branches with a notable presence in the country include the Baptists, Seventh-day Adventists, Lutherans and the Reformed tradition.^[372]

However, in the last ten years Protestantism, particularly in forms of Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism, has spread in Brazil, while the proportion of Catholics has dropped significantly.^[378] After Protestantism, individuals professing no religion are also a significant group, exceeding 7% of the population as of the 2000 census. The cities of Boa Vista, Salvador, and Porto Velho have the greatest proportion of Irreligious residents in Brazil. Teresina, Fortaleza, and Florianópolis were the most Roman Catholic in the country.^[379] Greater Rio de Janeiro, not including the city proper, is the most irreligious and least Roman Catholic Brazilian periphery, while Greater Porto Alegre and Greater Fortaleza are on the opposite sides of the lists, respectively.^[379]

Urbanization

According to IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) urban areas already concentrate 84.35% of the population, while the Southeast region remains the most populated one, with over 80 million inhabitants.^[380]

The largest urban agglomerations in Brazil are São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and Belo Horizonte – all in the Southeastern Region – with 21.1, 12.3, and 5.1 million inhabitants respectively.^[381]^[382] The majority of state capitals are the largest cities in their states, except for Vitória, the capital of Espírito Santo, and Florianópolis, the capital of Santa Catarina.^[383]

Language

The official language of Brazil is Portuguese^[384] (Article 13 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Brazil), which almost all of the population speaks and is virtually the only language used in newspapers, radio, television, and for business and administrative purposes. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in the Americas, making the language an important part of Brazilian national identity and giving it a national culture distinct from those of its Spanish-speaking neighbors.^[385]

In 1990, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP), which included representatives from all countries with Portuguese as the official language, reached an agreement on the reform of the Portuguese orthography to unify the two standards then in use by Brazil on one side and the remaining lusophone countries on the other. This spelling reform went into effect in Brazil on 1 January 2009. In Portugal, the reform was signed into law by the President on 21 July 2008 allowing for a 6-year adaptation period, during which both orthographies will co-exist. The remaining CPLP countries are free to establish their own transition timetables.^[388]

The sign language law legally recognized in 2002,^[389] (the law was regulated in 2005)^[390] the use of the Brazilian Sign Language, more commonly known by its Portuguese acronym LIBRAS, in education and government services. The language must be taught as a part of the education and speech and language pathology curricula. LIBRAS teachers, instructors and translators are recognized professionals. Schools and health services must provide access ("inclusion") to deaf people.^[391]

Minority languages are spoken throughout the nation. One hundred and eighty Amerindian languages are spoken in remote areas and a significant number of other languages are spoken by immigrants and their descendants.^[387] In the municipality of São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Nheengatu (a currently endangered South American creole language – or an 'anti-creole', according to some linguists – with mostly Indigenous Brazilian languages lexicon and Portuguese-based grammar that, together with its southern relative língua geral paulista, once was a major lingua franca in Brazil,{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} being replaced by Portuguese only after governmental prohibition led by major political changes){{overly detailed inline|date=July 2015}}, Baniwa and Tucano languages had been granted co-official status with Portuguese.^[392]

There are significant communities of German (mostly the Brazilian Hunsrückisch, a High German language dialect) and Italian (mostly the Talian, a Venetian dialect) origins in the Southern and Southeastern regions, whose ancestors' native languages were carried along to Brazil, and which, still alive there, are influenced by the Portuguese language.^[393]^[394] Talian is officially a historic patrimony of Rio Grande do Sul,^[395] and two German dialects possess co-official status in a few municipalities.^[396]

Learning at least one second language (generally English or Spanish) is mandatory for all the 12 grades of the mandatory education system (primary and secondary education, there called ensino fundamental and ensino médio respectively). Brazil is the first country in South America to offer Esperanto to secondary students.^[397]

Culture

The core culture of Brazil is derived from Portuguese culture, because of its strong colonial ties with the Portuguese Empire.^[398] Among other influences, the Portuguese introduced the Portuguese language, Roman Catholicism and colonial architectural styles. The culture was, however, also strongly influenced by African, indigenous and non-Portuguese European cultures and traditions.^[399]

Some aspects of Brazilian culture were influenced by the contributions of Italian, German and other European as well Japanese, Jewish and Arab immigrants who arrived in large numbers in the South and Southeast of Brazil during the 19th and 20th centuries.^[400] The indigenous Amerindians influenced Brazil's language and cuisine; and the Africans influenced language, cuisine, music, dance and religion.^[401]

Architecture

The architecture of Brazil is influenced by Europe, especially Portugal. It has a history that goes back 500 years to the time when Pedro Cabral discovered Brazil in 1500. Portuguese colonial architecture was the first wave of architecture to go to Brazil.^[405] It is the basis for all Brazilian architecture of later centuries.^[406] In the 19th century during the time of the Empire of Brazil, Brazil followed European trends and adopted Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. Then in the 20th century especially in Brasilia, Brazil experimented with Modernist architecture.

The colonial architecture of Brazil dates to the early 16th century when Brazil was first explored, conquered and settled by the Portuguese. The Portuguese built architecture familiar to them in Europe in their aim to colonise Brazil. They built Portuguese colonial architecture which included Churches, civic architecture including houses and forts in Brazilian cities and the countryside. During 19th Century Brazilian architecture saw the introduction of more European styles to Brazil such as Neoclassical and Gothic Revival architecture. This was usually mixed with Brazilian influences from their own heritage which produced a unique form of Brazilian architecture. In the 1950s the modernist architecture was introduced when Brasilia was built as new federal capital in the interior of Brazil to help develop the interior. The architect Oscar Niemeyer idealized and built Government buildings, Churches and civic buildings was constructed in the modernist style.^[407]^[408]

Music

The music of Brazil was formed mainly from the fusion of European and African elements.^[409] Until the nineteenth century, Portugal was the gateway to most of the influences that built Brazilian music, although many of these elements were not of Portuguese origin, but generally European. The first was José Maurício Nunes Garcia, author of sacred pieces with influence of Viennese classicism.^[410] The major contribution of the African element was the rhythmic diversity and some dances and instruments that had a bigger role in the development of popular music and folk, flourishing especially in the twentieth century.^[409]

Popular music since the late eighteenth century began to show signs of forming a characteristically Brazilian sound, with samba considered the most typical and on the UNESCO cultural heritage list.^[411] Maracatu and Afoxê are two Afro-Brazilian music traditions that have been popularized by their appearance in the annual Brazilian Carnivals.^[412] The sport of capoeira is usually played with its own music referred to as capoeira music, which is usually considered to be a call-and-response type of folk music.^[413] Forró is a type of folk music prominent during the Festa Junina in northeastern Brazil.^[414] Jack A. Draper III, a professor of Portuguese at the University of Missouri,^[415] argues that Forró was used as a way to subdue feelings of nostalgia for a rural lifestyle.^[416]

Literature

Brazilian literature dates back to the 16th century, to the writings of the first Portuguese explorers in Brazil, such as Pêro Vaz de Caminha, filled with descriptions of fauna, flora and commentary about the indigenous population that fascinated European readers.{{sfnp|Crocitti|Vallance|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VhkvhllLooUC&pg=PA360 360]}}

Brazil produced significant works in Romanticism – novelists like Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar wrote novels about love and pain. Alencar, in his long career, also treated indigenous people as heroes in the Indigenist novels O Guarani, Iracema and Ubirajara.^[421] Machado de Assis, one of his contemporaries, wrote in virtually all genres and continues to gain international prestige from critics worldwide.^[422]^[423]^[424]

Cuisine

Brazilian cuisine varies greatly by region, reflecting the country's varying mix of indigenous and immigrant populations. This has created a national cuisine marked by the preservation of regional differences.^[429] Examples are Feijoada, considered the country's national dish;^[430] and regional foods such as beiju, feijão tropeiro, vatapá, moqueca, polenta (from Italian cuisine) and acarajé (from African cuisine).^[431]

The national beverage is coffee and cachaça is Brazil's native liquor. Cachaça is distilled from sugar cane and is the main ingredient in the national cocktail, Caipirinha.^[432]

A typical meal consists mostly of rice and beans with beef, salad, french fries and a fried egg.^[433] Often, it's mixed with cassava flour (farofa). Fried potatoes, fried cassava, fried banana, fried meat and fried cheese are very often eaten in lunch and served in most typical restaurants.^[434] Popular snacks are pastel (a fried pastry); coxinha (a variation of chicken croquete); pão de queijo (cheese bread and cassava flour / tapioca); pamonha (corn and milk paste); esfirra (a variation of Lebanese pastry); kibbeh (from Arabic cuisine); empanada (pastry) and empada, little salt pies filled with shrimps or heart of palm.

Brazil has a variety of desserts such as brigadeiros (chocolate fudge balls), bolo de rolo (roll cake with goiabada), cocada (a coconut sweet), beijinhos (coconut truffles and clove) and romeu e julieta (cheese with goiabada). Peanuts are used to make paçoca, rapadura and pé-de-moleque. Local common fruits like açaí, cupuaçu, mango, papaya, cocoa, cashew, guava, orange, lime, passionfruit, pineapple, and hog plum are turned in juices and used to make chocolates, ice pops and ice cream.^[435]

Cinema

The Brazilian film industry began in the late 19th century, during the early days of the Belle Époque. While there were national film productions during the early 20th century, American films such as Rio the Magnificent were made in Rio de Janeiro to promote tourism in the city.^[436] The films Limite (1931) and Ganga Bruta (1933), the latter being produced by Adhemar Gonzaga through the prolific studio Cinédia, were poorly received at release and failed at the box office, but are acclaimed nowadays and placed among the finest Brazilian films of all time.^[437] The 1941 unfinished film It's All True was divided in four segments, two of which were filmed in Brazil and directed by Orson Welles; it was originally produced as part of the United States' Good Neighbor Policy during Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo government.

During the 1960s, the Cinema Novo movement rose to prominence with directors such as Glauber Rocha, Nelson Pereira dos Santos, Paulo Cesar Saraceni and Arnaldo Jabor. Rocha's films Deus e o Diabo na Terra do Sol (1964) and Terra em Transe (1967) are considered to be some of the greatest and most influential in Brazilian film history.^[438]

During the 1990s, Brazil saw a surge of critical and commercial success with films such as O Quatrilho (Fábio Barreto, 1995), O Que É Isso, Companheiro? (Bruno Barreto, 1997) and Central do Brasil (Walter Salles, 1998), all of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the latter receiving a Best Actress nomination for Fernanda Montenegro. The 2002 crime film City of God, directed by Fernando Meirelles, was critically acclaimed, scoring 90% on Rotten Tomatoes,^[439] being placed in Roger Ebert's Best Films of the Decade list^[440] and receiving four Academy Award nominations in 2004, including Best Director. Notable film festivals in Brazil include the São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro International Film Festivals and the Gramado Festival.

Theatre

The theatre in Brazil has its origins in the period of Jesuit expansion when theater was used for the dissemination of Catholic doctrine in the 16th century. in the 17th and 18th centuries the first dramatists who appeared on the scene of European derivation was for court or private performances.^[441] During the 19th century, dramatic theater gained importance and thickness, whose first representative was Luis Carlos Martins Pena (1813–1848), capable of describing contemporary reality. Always in this period the comedy of costume and comic production was imposed. Significant, also in the nineteenth century, was also the playwright Antônio Gonçalves Dias.^[442] There were also numerous operas and orchestras. The Brazilian conductor Antônio Carlos Gomes became internationally known with operas like Il Guarany. At the end of the 19th century orchestrated dramaturgias became very popular and were accompanied with songs of famous artists like the conductress Chiquinha Gonzaga.^[443]

Already in the early 20th century there was the presence of theaters, entrepreneurs and actor companies, but paradoxically the quality of the products staggered, and only in 1940 the Brazilian theater received a boost of renewal thanks to the action of Paschoal Carlos Magno and his student's theater, the comedians group and the Italian actors Adolfo Celi, Ruggero Jacobbi and Aldo Calvo, founders of the Teatro Brasileiro de Comedia. From the 1960s it was attended by a theater dedicated to social and religious issues and to the flourishing of schools of dramatic art. The most prominent authors at this stage were Jorge Andrade and Ariano Suassuna.^[442]

Visual arts

Brazilian painting emerged in the late 16th century,^[444] influenced by Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism, Expressionism, Surrealism, Cubism and Abstracionism making it a major art style called Brazilian academic art.^[445]^[527] The Missão Artística Francesa (French Artistic Mission) arrived in Brazil in 1816 proposing the creation of an art academy modeled after the respected Académie des Beaux-Arts, with graduation courses both for artists and craftsmen for activities such as modeling, decorating, carpentry and others and bringing artists like Jean-Baptiste Debret.^[446]

Upon the creation of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts, new artistic movements spread across the country during the 19th century and later the event called Week of Modern Art broke definitely with academic tradition in 1922 and started a nationalist trend which was influenced by modernist arts. Among the best-known Brazilian painters are Ricardo do Pilar and Manuel da Costa Ataíde (baroque and rococo), Victor Meirelles, Pedro Américo and Almeida Junior (romanticism and realism), Anita Malfatti, Ismael Nery, Lasar Segall, Emiliano di Cavalcanti, Vicente do Rego Monteiro, and Tarsila do Amaral (expressionism, surrealism and cubism), Aldo Bonadei, José Pancetti and Cândido Portinari (modernism).^[447]

Sports

The most popular sport in Brazil is football.^[449] The Brazilian men's national team is ranked among the best in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings, and has won the World Cup tournament a record five times.^[450]^[451]

Some sport variations have their origins in Brazil: beach football,^[455] futsal (indoor football)^[456] and footvolley emerged in Brazil as variations of football. In martial arts, Brazilians developed Capoeira,^[457] Vale tudo,^[458] and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.^[459]

Brazil has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, like the 1950 FIFA World Cup^[460] and recently has hosted the 2014 FIFA World Cup.^[461] The São Paulo circuit, Autódromo José Carlos Pace, hosts the annual Grand Prix of Brazil.^[462] São Paulo organized the IV Pan American Games in 1963, and Rio de Janeiro hosted the XV Pan American Games in 2007.^[463] On 2 October 2009, Rio de Janeiro was selected to host the 2016 Olympic Games and 2016 Paralympic Games, making it the first South American city to host the games^[464] and second in Latin America, after Mexico City. Furthermore, the country hosted the FIBA Basketball World Cups in 1954 and 1963. At the 1963 event, the Brazil national basketball team won one of its two world championship titles.^[465]

National holidays

See also

Notes

1. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.eb.mil.br/web/midia-eletronica/hino-a-bandeira-nacional |title=Hino à Bandeira Nacional |author=Exército Brasileiro |language=Portuguese |accessdate=29 January 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222123948/http://www.eb.mil.br/web/midia-eletronica/hino-a-bandeira-nacional |archivedate=22 February 2014 |df= }}
2. ^{{cite web |title=Demographics |publisher=Brazilian Government |url=http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics |accessdate=8 October 2011 |archivedate=17 November 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117051415/http://www.brasil.gov.br/sobre/brazil/brazil-in-numbers/demographics}}
3. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/censo2010/caracteristicas_da_populacao/tabelas_pdf/tab3.pdf |title=Caracteristicas da População e dos Domicílios do Censo Demográfico 2010 – Cor ou raça |format=PDF |accessdate=7 April 2012}}
4. ^{{cite web |last1=Silva |first1=Antonio Carlos Coutinho Gouvea da |title=Projeções da População {{!}} Estatísticas {{!}} IBGE :: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |url=https://www.ibge.gov.br/estatisticas-novoportal/sociais/populacao/9109-projecao-da-populacao.html?=&t=resultados |website=www.ibge.gov.br |accessdate=30 August 2018 |language=pt-br}}
5. ^¹²³{{cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2019&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=51&pr1.y=14&c=223&s=NGDPD%2CPPPGDP%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|website=www.imf.org|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=1 January 2019}}
6. ^{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=BR |title= GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher= World Bank |accessdate= 9 November 2016}}
7. ^{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |title=2018 Human Development Report |year=2018 |accessdate=14 September 2018 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme }}
8. ^IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics). 2010 Census. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
9. ^{{IPA-pt|bɾɐˈziɫ|eu}}
10. ^{{cite book|url=|title=A History of Modern Brazil: 1889–1964|author=José María Bello|publisher=Stanford University Press|year=1966|isbn=978-0-8047-0238-6|page=56}}
11. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/geociencias/cartografia/default_territ_area.shtm|title=Área Territorial Brasileira|last=|date=|publisher=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística|language=Portuguese|trans-title=Brazilian Territorial Area|access-date=4 May 2018|quote=Para a superfície do Brasil foi obtido o valor de 8.515.759,090 km2, publicado no DOU nº 124 de 30/06/2017, conforme Resolução Nº 02, de 29 de junho de 2017.}}
12. ^{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8VE92tDqEEC&pg=PA148|title=Encyclopedia of Global Warming and Climate Change, Second Edition|author=Philander|first=S. George|publisher=Princeton University|year=2012|isbn=978-1-4129-9261-9|edition=Second|volume=Vol. 1|location=Los Angeles|page=148|oclc=970592418}}
13. ^{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vP9jHaoL_s4C&pg=PR23|title=Brazil Today: An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic|last=Vallance|first=Monique M.|publisher=ABC-CLIO|others=Contributing editor Monique M. Vallance|year=2012|isbn=978-0-313-34672-9|editor-last=Crocitti|editor-first=John J.|page=xxiii|chapter=Preface and Observations on Contemporary Brazil|oclc=787850982|ref={{harvid|Crocitti|Vallance|2012}} }}
14. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/especial/migrantes/migrantes.shtml|title=Os migrantes de hoje|publisher=BBC Brasil |accessdate=24 October 2018}}
15. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.un.int/brazil/brasil/brazil-land.htm|title=Brazil – Land|last=|date=|website=Permanent Missions|publisher=United Nations|at=Geography|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023154830/http://www.un.int/brazil/brasil/brazil-land.htm|archivedate=23 October 2014|access-date=}}
16. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html|title=Geography of Brazil|last=|date=1 May 2018|website=The World Factbook|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|at=Geography > Coastline|accessdate=4 May 2018}}
17. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶⁷⁸⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵{{cite web |title=Brazilian Federal Constitution |publisher=Presidency of the Republic |year=1988 |url=http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/Constituicao/Constituiçao.htm |language=Portuguese |accessdate=3 June 2008}} {{cite web |title=Brazilian Federal Constitution |publisher=v-brazil.com |year=2007 |url=http://www.v-brazil.com/government/laws/titleI.html |quote=Unofficial translate |accessdate=3 June 2008}}
18. ^{{cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre — World Heritage List |publisher=UNESCO |accessdate=25 May 2012}}
19. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ftse.com/products/downloads/FTSE-Country-Classification-Update-2018.pdf |title=FTSE Country Classification |publisher=FTSE Group |date= September 2018 |accessdate=20 November 2018}}
20. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2015/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=88&pr.y=4&sy=2015&ey=2020&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=223,132,534,136&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|author=|date=|website=imf.org}}
21. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Country Comparisons – GDP (purchasing power parity) |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=25 January 2011}}
22. ^{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups#Upper_middle_income |title=Country and Lending Groups |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=5 March 2011 |quote=Uppermiddle Income defined as a per capita income between $3,976 – $12,275 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110318125456/http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups |archivedate=18 March 2011 }}
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26. ^¹{{cite book|author=Sean W. Burges|title=Latin America and the Shifting Sands of Globalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tolwCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA114|year= 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-69658-2|pages=114–15|authormask=|trans-title=|format=|origyear=|oclc=|doi=|bibcode=|id=|quote=|laysummary=|laydate=}}
27. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibsanews.com/pt/eeuu-eespecialistas-reclamam-reconhecimento-do-brasil-como-potecircncia-mundial/ |title=Especialistas reclamam reconhecimento do Brasil como potência mundial|publisher=IBS News|date=15 June 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2017}}
28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.dci.com.br/pela-primeira-vez-brasil-emerge-como-potencia-internacional,-diz-patriota-id293466.html |title=Pela primeira vez Brasil emerge como potência internacional, diz Patriota |publisher= |date=10 May 2012 |accessdate=7 April 2017}}
29. ^{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/201109150218.html |title=Brazil – Emerging Soft Power of the World|publisher=allAfrica.com |date=15 September 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2017}}
30. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.sidneyrezende.com/noticia/143872+brasil+ganha+dos+estados+unidos+em+influencia+na+america+do+sul |title=Brasil ganha dos Estados Unidos em influência na América do Sul |publisher=The Economist |date=2 September 2011 |accessdate=7 April 2017}}
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56. ^Boxer, p. 101.
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63. ^Skidmore, p. 34.
64. ^Boxer, p. 102.
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256. ^{{cite web|url=http://oglobo.globo.com/boa-viagem/praia-de-fernando-de-noronha-eleita-mais-bonita-do-mundo-11916584|title=Praia de Fernando de Noronha é eleita a mais bonita do mundo|author=O Globo|date=18 March 2014|accessdate=4 January 2018}}
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258. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights11enhr_1.pdf|title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights – 2011 Edition|publisher=World Tourism Organization|date=June 2011|accessdate=29 September 2011}}
259. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br/dadosefatos/home.html|title=Estatisticas e Indicadores: Receita Cambial|publisher=Ministério do Turismo|year=2012|accessdate=13 February 2012|language=Portuguese}}
260. ^¹{{cite web|url=http://www.nopatio.com.br/o-que-acontece/turismo-brasileiro-com-novo-recorde-em-2011/|title=Turismo Brasileiro com novo recorde em 2011|author=Ministério do Turismo|publisher=No Pátio|date=13 January 2012|accessdate=13 February 2012|language=Portuguese|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130822074421/http://www.nopatio.com.br/o-que-acontece/turismo-brasileiro-com-novo-recorde-em-2011/|archivedate=22 August 2013}}
261. ^{{cite book|author=Guilherme Lohmann Palhares|title=Tourism in Brazil: Environment, Management and Segments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O91SVF9nH8gC&pg=PA126|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-67432-4|page=126}}
262. ^{{cite web |title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 |publisher=World Economic Forum |url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/TT15/WEF_Global_Travel&Tourism_Report_2015.pdf |date=May 2015}}
263. ^¹{{cite web|url =http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TT_Competitiveness_Report_2013.pdf|author=Jennifer Blanke and Thea Chiesa, Editors |year = 2013 |title = Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2013 |publisher = World Economic Forum, Geneva, Switzerland|accessdate=14 April 2013}} See Table 4, pp. 18–19 and Country/Economy Profile: Brazil, pp. 116–17.
264. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_07_eng_hr.pdf|title=UNWTO Tourism Highlights, Edition 2007|publisher=UNWTO|author=World Tourism Organization|accessdate=14 June 2008|year=2007|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409090548/http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_07_eng_hr.pdf|archivedate=9 April 2013}}
265. ^{{cite web |year = 2009 |url=http://www.abav.com.br/info_indicadores_detalhe.aspx?id=24&id_area=20&id_doc=28|title = Anuário Estatístico de Turismo 2009|author = EMBRATUR|publisher= Ministério de Turismo |accessdate=5 September 2008|language=Portuguese}} See tables 1.1 and 3.8
266. ^{{cite web |url = http://www.worldtourism.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_06_eng_lr.pdf |title = Tourism Highlights 2006 [pdf] |publisher = |author = The World Tourism Organization |accessdate = 6 January 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070628064808/http://www.worldtourism.org/facts/eng/pdf/highlights/highlights_06_eng_lr.pdf |archive-date = 28 June 2007 |dead-url = yes |df = dmy-all }}
267. ^{{cite web|year=2007 |url=http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/Boletimdedesempenho/boletim_13___fevereiro_de_2007.pdf |title=Boletim de Desempenho Econômico do Turismo |author=Facultade Getúlio Vargas |publisher=Ministério de Turismo |accessdate=21 June 2008 |language=Portuguese |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003062353/http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/Boletimdedesempenho/boletim_13___fevereiro_de_2007.pdf |archivedate=3 October 2008}} Fevereiro 2007, Ano IV, nº 13, p. 3
268. ^{{cite web|year=2010 |url=http://unwto.org/facts/menu.html |title=UNTWO Tourism Highlights 2010 Edition |publisher=World Tourism Organization |accessdate=31 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607130445/http://www.unwto.org/facts/menu.html |archivedate= 7 June 2013 |df= }} Click on the link "UNWTO Tourism Highlights" to access the pdf report.
269. ^¹²{{cite web|year=2008 |url=http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/pesquisaanual/pacet4_12_mar.pdf |title=Pesquisa Anual de Conjuntura Econômica do Turismo |author=Facultade Getúlio Vargas |publisher=Ministério de Turismo |accessdate=22 June 2008 |language=Portuguese |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003062332/http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/pesquisaanual/pacet4_12_mar.pdf |archivedate=3 October 2008}} Março 2008, Ano IV, p. 11
270. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.braziltour.com/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/demanda%20turistica/demanda_turismo_domestico_setembro_2006.pdf |author=Fundação Instituto de Pesquisas Econômicas e EMBRATUR |year=2006 |title=Caracterização e Dimensionamento do Turismo Domêstico no Brasil 2002 e 2006: Metodologia e Desenvolvimento |publisher=Ministério do Turismo |accessdate=22 June 2008 |language=Portuguese |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130164741/http://www.braziltour.com/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/demanda%20turistica/demanda_turismo_domestico_setembro_2006.pdf |archivedate=30 November 2006}}
271. ^{{cite web |author = Carmen Altés |year = 2006 |title = El Turismo en América Latina y el Caribe y la experiencia del BID|pages= 9, 47|publisher = Inter-American Development Bank; Sustainable Development Department, Technical Paper Series ENV-149, Washington, DC|language=Spanish|url=http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=984876|accessdate=14 June 2008}}
272. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ipea.gov.br/sites/000/2/publicacoes/tds/td_1320.pdf |author = Margerida Coelho |year = 2008 |title = Distribução Espacial da Ocupação no Setor de Turismo: Brasil e Regiões|publisher=Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica Aplicada |accessdate=22 June 2008 |language=Portuguese}}
273. ^{{cite web|url=http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/demanda%20turistica/relatorio_executivo___turismo_domestico___2002_e_2006.pdf |author=Fundação Instituto de Pesquisas Econômicas |year=2007 |title=Caracterização e Dimensionamento do Turismo Domêstico no Brasil 2002 e 2006 |publisher=Ministério do Turismo |accessdate=21 June 2008 |language=Portuguese |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003062341/http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/demanda%20turistica/relatorio_executivo___turismo_domestico___2002_e_2006.pdf |archivedate=3 October 2008}}
274. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cidadedesaopaulo.com/pesquisa/pdf/rel_boletim_anual_pesquisas_spturis_%202006.pdf |author=Diretoria de Turismo |year=2006 |title=Boletim Anual São Paulo Turismo |publisher=Prefeitura de São Paulo |accessdate=20 November 2008 |format=PDF |language=Portuguese}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} see 2.1.3 "Receitas setor trurístico 2005".
275. ^{{cite web|url=http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/Anuario/anuario_estatistico_2006_pdf.pdf |author=EMBRATUR |year=2006 |title=Anúario Estatístico Volume 33 2006 |publisher=Ministério do Turismo |accessdate=22 June 2008 |language=Portuguese |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080909235018/http://200.189.169.141/site/arquivos/dados_fatos/Anuario/anuario_estatistico_2006_pdf.pdf |archivedate=9 September 2008}} Tables 4.1 a 4.4: Summary Brasil by trip purpose 2004–2005
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278. ^{{cite book|author1=Brian Harvey|author2=Henk H.F. Smid|author3=Thâeo Pirard|title=Emerging Space Powers: The New Space Programs of Asia, the Middle East and South-America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XD1ZaYbiWwMC&pg=PA324|year=2010|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4419-0874-2|page=324}}
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281. ^{{cite news|title=Confirmed: Agreement with France Includes the Brazilian Nuclear Submarine |url=http://npsglobal.org/eng/news/139-peaceful-uses/490-confirmed-agreement-with-france-includes-the-brazilian-nuclear-submarine.html|work=Nonproliferation for Global Security Foundation |date=23 December 2008 |accessdate=23 December 2008}}
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286. ^{{cite web|url=http://vintagemachinery.org/mfgindex/detail.aspx?id=294 |title=Engelberg, Inc|access-date=17 July 2011|publisher=Vintage Machinery|year=2011}}
287. ^Abreu, Manuel de, pag. 17 – Grande Enciclopédia Universal – edição de 1980 – Ed.Amazonas
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289. ^Exposição destaca centenário do CEFET-MG Sítio do Cefet-MG, acessado em 13 de novembro de 2010 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813115503/http://www.cefetmg.br/noticias/2010/11/noticia0014.html |date=13 August 2014 }}
290. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.cbpf.br/meson/meson.html|author=Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovação|title=50 anos do Méson-Pi|access-date=29 December 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526200502/http://www.cbpf.br/meson/meson.html|archivedate=26 May 2011}}
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292. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/bpi/science/content/news/upress/99-147e.htm|title=Atta-Ur-Rahman, José Leite Lopes and Juan Martín Maldacena receive UNESCO science prizes|date=|publisher=UNESCOPRESS|access-date=21 October 2014}}
293. ^Brasileiro ganha a Medalha Fields, considerada o "Nobel da Matemática".
294. ^West, David A. 2003. Fritz Müller: a naturalist in Brazil. Blacksburg: Pocahontas Press
295. ^{{cite web |url=http://turismo.ig.com.br/destinos-nacionais/as-11-estradas-mais-incriveis-do-brasil/n1597216427845.html |title=As 11 estradas mais incríveis do Brasil |author=Fernanda Castello Branco |publisher=iG |accessdate=22 September 2014}}
296. ^Global Finance – The Growth Challenge {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070512181621/http://www.gfmag.com/index.php?idPage=315 |date=12 May 2007 }}
297. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Brazil-TRANSPORTATION.html|title=Road system in Brazil |publisher=Nationsencyclopedia.com |accessdate=30 October 2010}}
298. ^{{Citation|last1=Pereira|first1=L.A.G|last2=Lessa|first2=S.N.|last3=Cardoso|first3=A.D.|title=Planejamento e Transporte Rodoviário no Brasil}}
299. ^Sydney Alberto Latini; "A Implantação da Indústria Automobilística no Brasil"; Editora Alaúde 2007 {{ISBN|978-85-98497-55-6}}
300. ^{{cite web|url=http://oica.net/wp-content/uploads/all-vehicles.pdf|title=Automotive industry in Brazil and the world|access-date=14 May 2010|publisher=International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers|format= PDF}}
301. ^"OPrincipais ferrovias." Ministerio dos Transportes {{pt icon}} {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130329092636/http://www2.transportes.gov.br/bit/03-ferro/princ-ferro.html |date=29 March 2013 }}
302. ^¹[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html Country Comparison to the World: Gini Index – Brazil] The World Factbook. Retrieved on 3 April 2012.
303. ^"Ociosidade atinge 70% dos principais aeroportos." globo.com, 12 August 2007. {{pt icon}}
304. ^{{cite book|author=Guilherme Lohmann Palhares|title=Tourism in Brazil: Environment, Management and Segments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O91SVF9nH8gC&pg=PA48|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-67432-4|page=48}}
305. ^"[https://web.archive.org/web/20081227224101/http://www.mzweb.com.br/santosbrasil/web/conteudo_pt.asp?idioma=0&tipo=3958&conta=28 Mercado Brasileiro Terminais de Contêineres]," Santos Brasil. {{pt icon}}
306. ^" ," Navios esperam até 16 dias para atracar em porto do país, diz MDIC.
307. ^{{cite web|url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/cotidiano/2014/04/1440047-hc-faz-aniversario-em-meio-a-reformas-que-somam-r-350-milhoes.shtml|title=HC faz aniversário em meio a reformas que somam R$ 350 milhões|publisher=Folha de S.Paulo|date=13 April 2014|access-date=11 August 2014}}
308. ^{{cite book|author1=Gerard Martin La Forgia|author2=Bernard F. Couttolenc|title=Hospital Performance in Brazil: The Search for Excellence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3R43xW5KqcC&pg=PA17|year=2008|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-7359-0|page=17}}
309. ^{{cite web|url=http://conselho.saude.gov.br/web_sus20anos/index.html|title=20 Anos do SUS|publisher=Conselho Nacional de Saúde|accessdate=13 April 2012}}
310. ^{{cite book|author=Lawrence F. Wolper|title=Health Care Administration: Planning, Implementing, and Managing Organized Delivery Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zts-QdpDiWUC&pg=PA33|year=2004|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-3144-1|page=33}}
311. ^{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.PHYS.ZS?locations=BR|title=Physicians (per 1,000 people)|last=|first=|date=|website=World Health Organization's Global Health Workforce Statistics|access-date=}}
312. ^{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.MED.BEDS.ZS|title=Hospital beds (per 1,000 people)|last=|first=|date=|website=World Health Organization The World Bank|access-date=}}
313. ^¹{{Cite web|title=Saúde|website=Radar social|publisher=Ministério do Planejamento|url=http://www.planejamento.gov.br/secretarias/upload/Arquivos/spi/programas_projeto/radar_social/2006_PRP_Radar_radarSocial.pdf|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20081216074831/http://www.planejamento.gov.br/secretarias/upload/Arquivos/spi/programas_projeto/radar_social/2006_PRP_Radar_radarSocial.pdf|dead-url=yes|archive-date=16 December 2008|accessdate=10 June 2008}}
314. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/healthinfo/paper30.pdf |title=Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries|publisher=World Health Organization|date=2000|accessdate=30 April 2014}}
315. ^{{cite book|author=Usa Ibp Usa|title=Brazil: Tax Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzhWjfK8CswC&pg=PA42|year=2005|publisher=Int'l Business Publications|isbn=978-0-7397-3279-3|page=42}}
316. ^{{cite book|author=The Central Intelligence Agency|title=The World Factbook 2010: (CIA 2009 Edition)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m-9eSrZtYAAC&pg=PA143|year=2010|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc.|isbn=978-1-59797-541-4|page=143}}
317. ^{{cite book|author=World Bank|title=Rural Poverty Alleviation in Brazil: Towards an Integrated Strategy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YttV-Ggq90UC&pg=PA40|year=2001|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-5206-9|page=40}}
318. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/latin-american-university-rankings/2019|title=QS University Rankings Latin America|publisher=QS World University Rankings|accessdate=11 November 2018}}
319. ^{{cite web|title=Rede Globo se torna a 2ª maior emissora do mundo|url=http://ofuxico.terra.com.br/noticias-sobre-famosos/rede-globo-se-torna-a-2-maior-emissora-do-mundo/2012/05/11-139187.html|publisher=O Fuxico|accessdate=22 May 2012|language=Portuguese}}
320. ^{{cite book|author1=Roberto Gonzalez Echevarría|author2=Enrique Pupo-Walker|title=The Cambridge History of Latin American Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=97NoYRx96ZAC&pg=PA13|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-41035-9|page=13}}
321. ^{{cite book|author=Donald H. Johnston|title=Encyclopedia of international media and communications|volume=3|year=2003|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-387671-3|page=130}}
322. ^{{cite book|author=Jon S. Vincent|title=Culture and Customs of Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHobg0djRbEC&pg=PA97|year=2003|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-30495-8|pages=97–100}}
323. ^{{cite book|author=Bryan McCann|title=Hello, Hello Brazil: Popular Music in the Making of Modern Brazil|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq8wb7lQJ-EC&pg=PA22|year=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-3273-2|page=22}}
324. ^{{cite book|author=David Ward|title=Television and Public Policy: Change and Continuity in an Era of Global Liberalization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdEs1Av1CvAC&pg=PA28|year=2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-203-87728-9|page=28}}
325. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.ibope.com.br/pt-br/relacionamento/duvidas-frequentes/Paginas/Audiencia-de-televisao.aspx |title=Um ponto de IBOPE equivale a quantas pessoas? E domicílios? |publisher=IBOPE |accessdate=23 March 2013}}
326. ^{{cite news|url=http://entretenimento.br.msn.com/famosos/top-10-das-novelas?page=0px |title=Top 10 das novelas |publisher=MSN Brasil|accessdate=23 March 2013}}
327. ^{{cite book|author=Marcelo S. Alencar|title=Digital Television Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M96rKRAqHFgC&pg=PA179|year=2009|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-89602-3|pages=179–81}}
328. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10152301 |title=Brazil launches international TV station for Africa |publisher=BBC News |date=25 May 2010 |accessdate=30 October 2010}}
329. ^2008 PNAD, IBGE. "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade"
330. ^2008 PNAD, IBGE. "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade"
331. ^2008 PNAD, IBGE. "População residente por situação, sexo e grupos de idade."
332. ^"Brazil population reaches 190.8 million {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809205237/http://www.brasil.gov.br/news/history/2011/04-1/29/brazil-population-reaches-190.8-million/newsitem_view?set_language=en |date=9 August 2013 }}". Brasil.gov.br.
333. ^"Shaping Brazil: The Role of International Migration". Migration Policy Institute.
334. ^José Alberto Magno de Carvalho, "Crescimento populacional e estrutura demográfica no Brasil {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019004601/http://cedeplar.face.ufmg.br/pesquisas/td/TD%20227.pdf |date=19 October 2016 }}" Belo Horizonte: UFMG/Cedeplar, 2004 (PDF file), p. 5.
335. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_visualiza.php?id_noticia=1275&id_pagina=1 |title=Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística |publisher=IBGE |date=29 November 1999 |accessdate=25 January 2010}}
336. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/presidencia/noticias/noticia_impressao.php?id_noticia=1272 |title=Projeção da População do Brasil – Brazil's populational projection |publisher=IBGE |accessdate=25 January 2010}}
337. ^Magno de Carvalho, "Crescimento populacional e estrutura demográfica no Brasil{{dead link|date=May 2017|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}," pp. 7–8.
338. ^PNAD 2008, IBGE. "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo, alfabetização e grupos de idade e grupos de idade."
339. ^PNAD 2008, IBGE. "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo, alfabetização e grupos de idade"
340. ^PNAD 2008, IBGE. "Pessoas de 5 anos ou mais de idade por situação, sexo e alfabetização."
341. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=5270&Itemid=478&cod_pais=ITA&tipo=ficha_pais&lang=pt-BR|title=República Italiana|author=|date=|website=www.itamaraty.gov.br}}
342. ^2008 PNAD, IBGE. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20110614225239/http://www.sidra.ibge.gov.br/bda/tabela/protabl.asp?c=262&i=P&nome=on¬arodape=on&tab=262&unit=0&pov=3&opc1=1&poc2=1&OpcTipoNivt=1&opn1=2&nivt=0&orc86=3&poc1=1&orp=6&qtu3=27&opv=1&poc86=2&sec1=0&opc2=1&pop=1&opn2=0&orv=2&orc2=5&qtu2=5&sev=93&sev=1000093&opc86=1&sec2=0&opp=1&opn3=0&sec86=0&sec86=2776&sec86=2777&sec86=2779&sec86=2778&sec86=2780&sec86=2781&ascendente=on&sep=43344&orn=1&qtu7=9&orc1=4&qtu1=1&cabec=on&pon=1&OpcCara=44&proc=1&opn7=0&decm=99 População residente por cor ou raça, situação e sexo]."
343. ^"[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/07/AR2007070701312.html In Amazonia, Defending the Hidden Tribes]," The Washington Post (8 July 2007).
344. ^{{cite journal|url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf |title=Allele frequencies of 15 STRs in a representative sample of the Brazilian population |doi=10.1016/j.fsigen.2009.05.006 |year=2010 |last1=De Assis Poiares |first1=Lilian |last2=De Sá Osorio |first2=Paulo |last3=Spanhol |first3=Fábio Alexandre |last4=Coltre |first4=Sidnei César |last5=Rodenbusch |first5=Rodrigo |last6=Gusmão |first6=Leonor |last7=Largura |first7=Alvaro |last8=Sandrini |first8=Fabiano |last9=Da Silva |first9=Cláudia Maria Dornelles |journal=Forensic Science International: Genetics |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=e61–63 |pmid=20129458 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5xmleMZgv?url=http://www.alvaro.com.br/pdf/trabalhoCientifico/ARTIGO_BRASIL_LILIAN.pdf |archivedate= 8 April 2011 }}
345. ^Brazilian DNA is nearly 80% European, indicates study.
346. ^NMO Godinho O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162240/http://bdtd.bce.unb.br/tedesimplificado/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=3873 |date=6 July 2011 }}. PhD Thesis, Universidade de Brasília (2008).
347. ^¹{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017063 |title=The Genomic Ancestry of Individuals from Different Geographical Regions of Brazil Is More Uniform Than Expected |year=2011 |last1=Pena |first1=Sérgio D. J. |last2=Di Pietro |first2=Giuliano |last3=Fuchshuber-Moraes |first3=Mateus |last4=Genro |first4=Julia Pasqualini |last5=Hutz |first5=Mara H. |last6=Kehdy Fde |first6=Fernanda de Souza Gomes |last7=Kohlrausch |first7=Fabiana |last8=Magno |first8=Luiz Alexandre Viana |last9=Montenegro |first9=Raquel Carvalho|journal=PLoS ONE |volume=6 |issue=2 |page=e17063 |pmid=21359226 |pmc=3040205|editor1-last=Harpending|editor1-first=Henry|last10=Moraes|first10=MO|last11=De Moraes|first11=ME|last12=De Moraes|first12=MR|last13=Ojopi|first13=EB|last14=Perini|first14=JA|last15=Racciopi|first15=C|last16=Ribeiro-Dos-Santos|first16=AK|last17=Rios-Santos|first17=F|last18=Romano-Silva|first18=MA|last19=Sortica|first19=VA|last20=Suarez-Kurtz|first20=G|displayauthors=9|bibcode=2011PLoSO...617063P}}
348. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/tendencia_demografica/analise_populacao/1940_2000/default.shtm |title=Tendências Demográficas: Uma análise da população com base nos resultados dos Censos Demográficos 1940 e 2000 |publisher=Ibge.gov.br |accessdate=7 April 2012}}
349. ^{{cite web|date=5 April 2011|url=http://port.pravda.ru/sociedade/curiosas/04-05-2011/31548-censo_demografico-0/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607201813/http://port.pravda.ru/sociedade/curiosas/04-05-2011/31548-censo_demografico-0/ |archivedate=7 June 2011 |title=Demographical census reveals Brazil as older and less white |publisher=Port.pravda.ru |accessdate=7 April 2012|author=Antonio Carlos Lacerda}}
350. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.fatimanews.com.br/noticias/populacao-que-se-declara-branca-diminui-diz-ibge_116224/ |title=Self-declared White Brazilians decrease in number, says IBGE |publisher=Fatimanews.com.br |accessdate=7 April 2012}}
351. ^{{cite journal|title=Color and genomic ancestry in Brazilians|first1=Flavia C.|last1=Parra|first2=Roberto C.|last2=Amado|first3=José R.|last3=Lambertucci|first4=Jorge|last4=Rocha|first5=Carlos M.|last5=Antunes|first6=Sérgio D. J.|last6=Pena|date=7 January 2003|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|volume=100|issue=1|pages=177–82|doi=10.1073/pnas.0126614100|pmc=140919|pmid=12509516|bibcode=2003PNAS..100..177P}}
352. ^RIBEIRO, Darcy. O Povo Brasileiro, Companhia de Bolso, fourth reprint, 2008 (2008).
353. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20101124105905/http://www.afrobras.org.br/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2112&Itemid=2 Negros de origem européia]. afrobras.org.br
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355. ^{{cite journal|title=Genetic heritage variability of Brazilians in even regional averages, 2009 study |doi=10.1590/S0100-879X2009005000026|year=2009|last1=Pena|first1=S.D.J.|last2=Bastos-Rodrigues|first2=L.|last3=Pimenta|first3=J.R.|last4=Bydlowski|first4=S.P.|journal=Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research|volume=42|issue=10|pages=870–76|pmid=19738982}}
356. ^¹Coelho (1996), p. 268.
357. ^¹Vesentini (1988), p. 117.
358. ^Adas, Melhem Panorama geográfico do Brasil, 4th ed (São Paulo: Moderna, 2004), p. 268 {{ISBN|85-16-04336-3}}
359. ^Azevedo (1971), pp. 2–3.
360. ^¹²Moreira (1981), p. 108.
361. ^Enciclopédia Barsa, vol. 4, pp. 254–55, 258, 265.
362. ^Azevedo (1971), pp. 74–75.
363. ^Enciclopédia Barsa, vol. 10 (Rio de Janeiro: Encyclopædia Britannica do Brasil, 1987), p. 355.
364. ^Azevedo (1971), p. 74.
365. ^¹Azevedo (1971), p. 161.
366. ^{{cite journal|author=Maria Stella Ferreira-Levy|title=O papel da migração internacional na evolução da população brasileira (1872 a 1972)|journal=Revista de Saúde Pública|volume =8 (supl.)|pages=49–90|year= 1974|doi=10.1590/S0034-89101974000500003}}, Table 2, p. 74. {{pt icon}}
367. ^Zirin, 2014. Chapter 2, Section "The Beginning of the 'Mosaic' ".
368. ^{{cite book|author1=Kevin Boyle|author2=Juliet Sheen|title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PT211|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72229-7|page=211}}
369. ^{{cite web |url=http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |title=Brazil |website= |publisher=Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs |accessdate=7 December 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110825203019/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/brazil |archive-date=25 August 2011 |dead-url=yes }}
370. ^{{cite book|author=Brian Morris|title=Religion and Anthropology: A Critical Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PguGB_uEQh4C&pg=PA223|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-85241-8|page=223}}
371. ^{{cite book|author1=William Jeynes|author2=David W. Robinson|title=International Handbook of Protestant Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NIBlry_2oLQC&pg=PA405|year=2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-007-2386-3|page=405}}
372. ^2010 census results
373. ^[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_7141/index.html "Arms wide open" BBC], Retrieved 29 April 2017.
374. ^"Religious statues: 10 of the world's most impressive" CNN, Retrieved 29 April 2017.
375. ^{{Cite book |author1=J. Gordon Melton |author2=Martin Baumann |title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |publisher=ABC-Clio Inc |year=2010 |page=308}}
376. ^{{cite conference |title=Brazil |booktitle=International Religious Freedom Report |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=8 November 2005 |url=https://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2005/51629.htm |accessdate=8 June 2008}}
377. ^IBGE, População residente, por sexo e situação do domicílio, segundo a religião, Censo Demográfico 2000. Acessado em 13 de dezembro de 2007
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