| 词条 | C-Group culture |
| 释义 |
| group = C-Group culture | native_name = | native_name_lang = | image = C Group bowl.jpg | image_caption = Bowl of the C-Group, Musée du Louvre | total = | total_year = | total_source = | total_ref = | genealogy = | regions = Nubia | languages = Afroasiatic languages | philosophies = | religions = | related_groups = A-Group, B-Group, Kerma culture | footnotes = }}{{for|the mathematical concept|C-group}} The C-Group culture is an archaeological culture found in Lower Nubia, which dates from ca. 2400 BCE to ca. 1550 BCE.[1] It was named by George A. Reisner. With no central site and no written evidence about what these people called themselves, Reisner assigned the culture a letter. The C-Group arose after Reisner's A-Group and B-Group cultures, and around the time the Old Kingdom was ending in Ancient Egypt.[2] OverviewWhile today many scholars see A and B as actually being a continuation of the same group, C-Group is considered as the product of Saharan pastoralist distinct.[3] The C-Group is marked by its distinctive pottery, and for its tombs.[4] Early C-Group tombs consisted of a simple "stone circle" with the body buried in a depression in the centre. The tombs later became more elaborate with the bodies being placed in a stone lined chamber, and then the addition of an extra chamber on the east: for offerings.[5] The origins of the C-Group are still debated. Some scholars see it largely being evolved from the A/B-Group. Others think it more likely that the C-Group was brought by invaders or migrants that mingled with the local culture, with the C-Group perhaps originating in the then rapidly drying Sahara.[6] The C-Group were farmers and semi-nomadic herders keeping large numbers of cattle in an area that is today too arid for such herding. Originally they were believed to be a peaceful people due to the lack of weapons in tombs; however, daggers, short swords and battle-axes were found in C-Group graves.[7] Their settling around the forts built by the ancient Egyptians was seen as further evidence.[8] Most of what is known about the C-Group peoples comes from Lower Nubia and the Dongola Reach.[9] The northern border of the C-Group was around el-Kubanieh near Aswan. The southern border is still uncertain, but C-Group sites have been found as far south as Eritrea.[10] During the Egyptian Sixth Dynasty, Lower Nubia is described of consisting of a number of small states, three of which are named: Setju, Wawat, and Irjet.[11] At this same time in Upper Nubia the Kingdom of Kerma was emerging. The exact relation between the C-Group and Kerma are uncertain, but early Kerma shows definite similarities to the C-Group culture and the Pan-Grave culture.[12] Under the Middle Kingdom much of the C-Group lands in Lower Nubia were conquered by Egypt; after the Egyptians left, Kerma expanded north controlling the region.[13] Starting with the conquest of Nubia by Egypt under Tuthmosis I in the late 16th century BCE, the C-Group merged with the Egyptians.[14] Dental trait analysis of C-Group fossils found that they were closely related to other Afroasiatic-speaking populations inhabiting Northeast Africa and the Maghreb. Among the ancient populations, the C-Group people were nearest to the ancient Egyptians (Naqada, Badari, Hierakonpolis, Abydos and Kharga in Upper Egypt; Hawara in Lower Egypt) and Pharaonic era skeletons excavated in Lower Nubia, followed by the A-Group culture bearers of Lower Nubia, the Kerma and Kush populations in Upper Nubia, the Meroitic, X-Group and Christian period inhabitants of Lower Nubia, and the Kellis population in the Dakhla Oasis. Among the recent groups, the C-Group markers were morphologically closest to the Shawia and Kabyle Berber populations of Algeria as well as Bedouin groups in Morocco, Libya and Tunisia, followed by other Afroasiatic-speaking populations in the Horn of Africa. LanguageAccording to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C-Group peoples spoke Afro-Asiatic languages of the Berber branch.[15][16] The Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of Berber origin, including the terms for sheep and water (e.g., Nile). This in turn suggests that the C-Group population — which, along with the Kerma Culture, inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers — spoke Afro-Asiatic languages.[15] Notes1. ^{{cite web|title=Ancient Nubia: C-Group–Pan Grave–Kerma 2400–1550 BC|url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/nubia/ancient-nubia-c-group%E2%80%93pan-grave%E2%80%93kerma-2400%E2%80%931550-bc|publisher=The Oriental Institute|accessdate=1 July 2016}} 2. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=Ui9Qwtp-LV4C&pg=PA33|title=Daily Life of the Nubians|last=Bianchi|first=Robert Steven|date=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=|isbn=9780313325014|location=|pages=33|language=en}} 3. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=AUTYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA54|title=Ancient Nubia|last=Shinnie|first=|date=2013-10-28|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9781136164651|location=|pages=55|language=en}} 4. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=jF2jq5JrkS4C&pg=PA100|title=Historical Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Nubia|last=Jr|first=Richard A. Lobban|date=2003-12-09|publisher=Scarecrow Press|year=|isbn=9780810865785|location=|pages=100|language=en}} 5. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=OZMrAQAAIAAJ&q|title=The Sudan in pre-history and history: a handbook for students|last=Wharton|first=William M.|date=1960|publisher=St. Joseph's Press|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=24|language=en}} 6. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA185|title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt|last=Bard|first=Kathryn A.|date=2005-11-03|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9781134665259|location=|pages=185|language=en}} 7. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=gB6DcMU94GUC&pg=PA253|title=Ancient Civilizations of Africa|last=Africa|first=Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of|date=1981|publisher=University of California Press|year=|isbn=9780435948054|location=|pages=253|language=en}} 8. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=irbP2hHqDAwC&pg=PA95|title=Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt, 3700 BC-AD 500|last=Török|first=László|date=2009|publisher=BRILL|year=|isbn=9004171975|location=|pages=95|language=en}} 9. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=3z-yDRgxn5MC&pg=PA77|title=The Nubian Past: An Archaeology of the Sudan|last=Edwards|first=David N.|date=2004-07-29|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9781134200870|location=|pages=77|language=en}} 10. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=wd_WAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT77|title=Ancient Nubia|last=Shinnie|first=|date=2013-10-28|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9781136164736|location=|pages=77|language=en}} 11. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=fkMOOcSiW5kC&pg=PA405|title=The Egyptian World|last=Wilkinson|first=Toby|last2=Wilkinson|first2=Professor of Egyptology and Deputy Vice Chancellor Toby|date=2013-05-13|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=113675377X|location=|pages=405|language=en}} 12. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA405|title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt|last=Bard|first=Kathryn A.|date=2005-11-03|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9781134665259|location=|pages=405|language=en}} 13. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=yfExR8UvaAsC&pg=PA53|title=Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period|last=Ben-Tor|first=Daphna|date=2007|publisher=Saint-Paul|year=|isbn=9783727815935|location=|pages=53|language=en}} 14. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=EOvRAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT380|title=A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean|last=McInerney|first=Jeremy|date=2014-06-13|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=|isbn=9781118834381|location=|pages=380|language=en}} 15. ^1 {{cite book|last1=Marianne Bechaus-Gerst|first1=Roger Blench, Kevin MacDonald (ed.)|title=The Origins and Development of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics and Ethnography - "Linguistic evidence for the prehistory of livestock in Sudan" (2000)|date=2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1135434166|page=453|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=-t5QAwAAQBAJ|accessdate=15 September 2014}} 16. ^{{cite book|last1=Behrens|first1=Peter|title=Libya Antiqua: Report and Papers of the Symposium Organized by Unesco in Paris, 16 to 18 January 1984 - "Language and migrations of the early Saharan cattle herders: the formation of the Berber branch"|date=1986|publisher=Unesco|isbn=9231023764|page=30|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=p_hwAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=14 September 2014}} References
5 : History of Nubia|Neolithic cultures of Africa|24th-century BC establishments|2nd-millennium BC disestablishments|Archaeological discoveries with year of discovery missing |
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