| 词条 | Data General |
| 释义 |
| name = Data General | logo = DGlogo.svg | successor = EMC Corporation | foundation = 1968 | defunct = 1999 | fate = Acquired | location = Westborough, Massachusetts | industry = Computer | key_people = | products = Minicomputers, disk arrays | num_employees = | parent = | subsid = }} Data General was one of the first minicomputer firms from the late 1960s.[1] Three of the four founders were former employees of Digital Equipment Corporation. Their first product, the Data General Nova, was a 16-bit minicomputer. This used their own operating system, Data General RDOS (DG/RDOS), and in conjunction with programming languages like "Data General Business Basic" they provided a multi-user operating system with record locking and built-in databases far ahead of many contemporary systems. The Nova was followed by the Supernova and Eclipse product lines, all of which were used in many applications for the next two decades. The company employed an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) sales strategy to sell to third parties who incorporated Data General computers into the OEM's specific product lines. A series of missteps in the 1980s, including missing the advance of microcomputers despite the launch of the microNOVA in 1977, and the Data General-One portable computer in 1984, led to a decline in the company's market share. The company did continue into the 1990s, however, and was eventually acquired by EMC Corporation (now Dell EMC) in 1999. HistoryOrigin, founding and early years: Nova and SuperNovaData General (DG) was founded by several engineers from Digital Equipment Corporation who were frustrated with DEC's management and left to form their own company. The chief founders were Edson de Castro,[2] Henry Burkhardt III, and Richard Sogge of Digital Equipment (DEC), and Herbert Richman of Fairchild Semiconductor.[3] The company was founded in Hudson, Massachusetts in 1968.[4] Edson de Castro was the chief engineer in charge of the PDP-8,[5] DEC's line of inexpensive computers that created the minicomputer market.[2] It was designed specifically to be used in laboratory equipment settings; as the technology improved, it was reduced in size to fit into a 19-inch rack. Many PDP-8s still operated decades later. De Castro, convinced he could do one better, began work on his new 16-bit design. The result was released in 1969[6] as the Nova. Designed to be rack-mounted similarly to the later PDP-8 machines, it was smaller in height and ran considerably faster. Announced as "the best small computer in the world",[7] the Nova quickly gained a following, especially in scientific and educational markets,[2] and made the company flush with cash, although Data General had to defend itself from misappropriation of its trade secrets.[8] With the initial success of the Nova, Data General went public in the fall of 1969. The Nova, like the PDP-8, used a simple accumulator-based architecture. It lacked general registers and the stack-pointer functionality of the more advanced PDP-11,[5] as did competing products, such as the HP 1000; compilers used hardware-based memory locations in lieu of a stack pointer. The original Nova was soon followed by the faster SuperNova,[9] then later by several minor versions based on the SuperNova core. The last major version, the Nova 4, was released in 1978. During this period the Nova generated 20% annual growth rates for the company, becoming a star in the business community and generating US$ 100 million in sales in 1975.[4] In 1977, DG launched a 16-bit microcomputer called the microNOVA to poor commercial success. The Nova series plays a very important role as instruction-set inspiration to Charles P. Thacker and others at Xerox PARC during their construction of the Xerox Alto.[10] Late 1970s to late 1980s: crisis and a short term solutionIn 1974, the Nova was supplanted by their upscale 16-bit machine, the Eclipse.[11] Based on many of the same concepts as the Nova, it included support for virtual memory and multitasking more suitable to the small office environment. For this reason, the Eclipse was packaged differently, in a floor-standing case resembling a small refrigerator. Production problems with the Eclipse[12] led to a rash of lawsuits in the late 1970s. Newer versions of the machine were pre-ordered by many of DG's customers, which were never delivered. Many customers sued Data General after more than a year of waiting, charging the company with breach of contract, while others simply canceled their orders and went elsewhere. The Eclipse was originally intended to replace the Nova outright, evidenced by the fact that the Nova 3 series, released at the same time and utilizing virtually the same internal architecture as the Eclipse, was phased out the next year. Strong demand continued for the Nova series, resulting in the Nova 4, perhaps as a result of the continuing problems with the Eclipse. In 1977, Digital announced the VAX series, their first 32-bit minicomputer line,[13] described as "super-minis". The first products would not ship until February 1978. This coincided with the aging 16-bit products (notably the PDP-11), which were coming due for replacement. Data General immediately launched their own 32-bit effort in 1976 to build what they called the "world's best 32-bit machine", known internally as the "Fountainhead Project". When Digital's VAX-11/780 was shipped in February 1978, however, Fountainhead was not yet ready to deliver a machine, due mainly to problems in project management. DG's customers left quickly for the VAX world. 32-bit Project Eagle - the Eagle projectSoon afterwards, Data General launched a hyperactive 32-bit effort based on the Eclipse. A 32-bit project named "Fountainhead" was already underway; the second project, a "secret" skunkworks, was led by Tom West, and was referred to internally as "Eagle." References to "the Eagle project" and "Project Eagle" co-exist.[12] Eagle was Data General's response to the February 1978 delivery of the first VAX. By late 1979, it became clear that Eagle would deliver before Fountainhead, igniting an intense turf war within the company for constantly shrinking project funds. In the meantime, customers abandoned Data General in droves, driven not only by the delivery problems with the original Eclipse (including very serious quality control and customer service problems), but also the power and versatility of Digital's new VAX line. The Eagle Project was the subject of Tracy Kidder's Pulitzer prize-winning book, The Soul of a New Machine, making the MV line the best-documented computer project in recent history. The MV/8000 was a straightforward, 32-bit extension of the Nova-based Eclipse. It was backwards-compatible with 16-bit Eclipse applications, used the same command-line interpreter as the 16-bit Eclipse, and achieved improved 32-bit performance over the VAX 11/780 while using fewer components. MV seriesIn 1980, the Eclipse MV/8000 was released. The MV systems generated an almost miraculous turnaround for Data General. Through the early 1980s sales picked up, and by 1984 the company had over a billion dollars in annual sales. One of Data General's significant customers at this time was the United States Forest Service, which starting in the mid-1980s used DG systems installed at all levels from headquarters in Washington, D.C. down to individual ranger stations and fire command posts.[14] This required equipment of high reliability and generally rugged construction that could be deployed in a wide range of places, often to be maintained and used by people with no computer background at all. The intent was to create new kinds of functional integration in an agency that had long prized its decentralized structure. Despite some tensions, the implementation was effective and the overall effects on the agency notably positive. The introduction, implementation, and effects of the DG systems in USFS were documented in a series of evaluative reports prepared in the late 1980s by the RAND Corporation. The MV series came in various iterations, from the MV/2000 (later MV/2500), MV/4000, MV/10000, MV/15000, MV/20000, MV/30000, MV/40000 and ultimately concluded with the MV/60000HA minicomputer. The MV/60000HA was intended to be a High Availability system, with many components duplicated to eliminate the single point of failure. Yet, there were failures among the system's many daughter boards, back-plane, and mid-plane. DG technicians were kept quite busy replacing boards and many blamed poor quality control at the DG factory in Mexico where they were made and refurbished. In retrospect, the nicely performing MV series was too little, too late. At a time when DG invested its last dollar into the dying minicomputer segment, the microcomputer was rapidly making inroads to the lower-end market segment, and the introduction of the first workstations wiped out all 16-bit machines, once DG's best customer segment. While the MV series did stop the erosion of DG's customer base, this now smaller base was no longer large enough to allow DG to develop their next generation. DG had also changed their marketing to focus on direct sales to Fortune 100 companies and thus alienated many resellers. SoftwareData General developed operating systems for its hardware: DOS and RDOS for the Nova, RDOS and AOS for the 16-bit Eclipse C, M, and S lines, AOS/VS and AOS/VS II for the Eclipse MV line, and a modified version of UNIX System V called DG/UX for the Eclipse MV and AViiON machines. The AOS/VS software was the most commonly used DG software product and included CLI (Command Line Interpreter) allowing for complex scripting, DUMP/LOAD, and other custom components. Related system software also in common use at the time included such packages as X.25, Xodiac, and TCP/IP for networking, Fortran, COBOL, RPG, PL/I, C and Data General Business Basic for programming, INFOS II and DG/DBMS for databases, and the nascent relational database software DG/SQL. Data General also offered an office automation suite named Comprehensive Electronic Office (CEO),[15] which included a mail system, a calendar, a folder-based document store, a word processor (CEOWrite), a spreadsheet processor, and other assorted tools. All were crude by today's standards, but were revolutionary for their time. CEOWrite was also offered on the DG One Portable. Some software development from the early 1970s is notable. PLN (created by Robert Nichols) was the host language for a number of DG products, making them easier to develop, enhance, and maintain than macro assembler equivalents. PLN smacked of a micro-subset of PL/I, in sharp contrast to other languages of the time, such as BLISS. The RPG product (shipped in 1976) incorporated a language runtime system implemented as a virtual machine which executed pre-compiled code as sequences of PLN statements and Eclipse commercial instruction routines. The latter provided microcode acceleration of arithmetic and conversion operations for a wide range of now-arcane data types such as overpunch characters. The DG Easy product, a portable application platform developed by Nichols and others from 1975 to 1979 but never marketed, had roots easily traceable back to the RPG VM created by Stephen Schleimer. Also notable were several commercial software products developed in the mid to late 1970s in conjunction with the commercial computers. These products were popular with business customers because of their screen design feature and other ease-of-use features.
The original IDEA ran on RDOS and would support up to 24 users in an RDOS Partition. Each user could use the same or a different program. Eventually, IDEA ran on every commercial hardware product from the MicroNova (4 users) to the MV series under AOS/VS, the same IDEA program running all those systems. The CS40 (the first of this line) was a package system which supported four terminal users, each running a different COBOL program.
XodiacData General's proprietary networking architecture was known as Xodiac.[17]{{rp|247}} Data General software packages supporting Xodiac included Comprehensive Electronic Office (CEO).[17]{{rp|247}} In 1987, Data General announced its intention to replace Xodiac with the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) protocol suite.[18] Dasher terminalsData General produced a full range of peripherals, sometimes by rebadging printers for example, but Data General's own series of CRT-based and hard-copy terminals were high quality and featured a generous number of function keys, each with the ability to send different codes, with any combination of control and shift keys, which influenced WordPerfect design. The model 6053 Dasher 2 featured an easily tilted screen, but used many integrated circuits; the smaller, lighter D100, D200 and eventually the D210 replaced it as the basic user terminal, while graphics models such as the D460 (with ANSI X3.64 compatibility) occupied the very high end of the range. Terminal emulators for the D2/D3/D100/D200/D210 (and some features of the D450/460) do exist, including the Freeware 1993 DOS program in D460.zip. Most Data General software was written specifically for their own terminals (or the terminal emulation built into the Desktop Generation DG10, but the Data General One built-in terminal emulator is not often suitable), although software using Data General Business BASIC could be more flexible in terminal handling, because logging into a Business BASIC system would initiate a process whereby the terminal type would (usually) be auto-detected. Data General-One{{Main article|Data General-One}}Data General's introduction of the Data General-One (DG-1) in 1984 is one of the few cases of a minicomputer company introducing a truly breakthrough PC product. Considered genuinely "portable", rather than "luggable", as alternatives often were called, it was a nine-pound battery-powered MS-DOS machine equipped with dual 3½-inch diskettes, a 79-key full-stroke keyboard, 128K to 512K of RAM, and a monochrome liquid-crystal display (LCD) screen capable of either the full-sized standard 80×25 characters or full CGA graphics (640×200). The DG-1 was considered a modest advance over similar Osborne-Kaypro systems overall. Desktop GenerationData General also brought out a small-footprint "Desktop Generation" range, starting with the DG10 that included both Data General and Intel CPUs in a patented closely coupled arrangement, able to run MS-DOS or CP/M-86 concurrently with DG/RDOS, with each benefiting from the hardware acceleration given by other CPU as a co-processor that would handle (for instance) screen graphics or disk operations concurrently. Other members of the Desktop Generation range, the DG20 and DG30, were aimed more at traditional commercial environments, such as multi-user COBOL systems, replacing refrigerator-sized minicomputers with toaster-sized modular microcomputers based around the microECLIPSE CPUs and some of the technology developed for the microNOVA-based "Micro Products" range such as the MP/100 and MP/200 that had struggled to find a market niche. The Single-processor version of the DG10, the DG10SP, was the entry-level machine with, like the DG20 and 30, no ability to run Intel software. Despite having some good features and having less direct competition from the flood of cheap PC compatibles, the Desktop Generation range also struggled, partly because they offered an economical way of running what was essentially "legacy software" while the future was clearly either slightly cheaper Personal Computers or slightly more expensive "super minicomputers" such as the MV and VAX computers. Lock-in or no lock-in?Throughout the 1980s, the computer market had evolved dramatically. Large installations in the past typically ran custom-developed software for a small range of tasks. For instance, IBM often delivered machines whose only purpose was to generate accounting data for a single company, running software tailored for that company alone. By the mid-1980s, the introduction of new software development methods and the rapid acceptance of the SQL database was changing the way such software was developed. Now developers typically linked together several pieces of existing software, as opposed to developing everything from scratch. In this market, the question of which machine was the "best" changed; it was no longer the machine with the best price–performance ratio or service contracts, but the one that ran all of the third-party software you intended to use. This change forced changes on the hardware vendors as well. Formerly, almost all computer companies attempted to make their machines different enough that when their customers sought a more powerful machine, it was often cheaper to buy another from the same company. This was known as "vendor lock-in", which helped guarantee future sales, even though the customers detested it. With the change in software development, combined with new generations of commodity processors that could match the performance of low-end minicomputers, lock-in was no longer working. When forced to make a decision, it was often cheaper for the users to simply throw out all of their existing machinery and buy a microcomputer product instead. If this was not the case at present, it certainly appeared it would be within a generation or two of Moore's law. In 1988, two company directors put together a report showing that if the company were to continue existing in the future, DG would have to either invest heavily in software to compete with new applications being delivered by IBM and DEC on their machines, or alternately exit the proprietary hardware business entirely. Thomas West's report outlined these changes in the marketplace, and suggested that the customer was going to win the fight over lock-in. They also outlined a different solution: Instead of trying to compete against the much larger IBM and DEC, they suggested that since the user no longer cared about the hardware as much as software, DG could deliver the best "commodity" machines instead. "Specifically", the report stated, "DG should examine the Unix market, where all of the needed software already exists, and see if DG can provide compelling Unix solutions."{{Cite quote|date=June 2009}} Now the customer could run any software they wished as long as it ran on Unix, and by the early 1990s, everything did. As long as DG's machines outperformed the competition, their customers would return, because they liked the machines, not because they were forced; lock-in was over. AViiONDe Castro agreed with the report, and future generations of the MV series were terminated. Instead, DG released a technically interesting series of Unix servers known as the AViiON. The name "AViiON" was a reversed play on the name of DG's first product, Nova, implying "Nova II". In an effort to keep costs down, the AViiON was originally designed and shipped with the Motorola 88000 RISC processor. The AViiON machines supported multi-processing, later evolving into NUMA-based systems, allowing the machines to scale upwards in performance by adding additional processors. CLARiiONAn important element in all enterprise computer systems is high speed storage. At the time AViiON came to market, commodity hard disk drives could not offer the sort of performance needed for data center use. DG attacked this problem in the same fashion as the processor issue, by running a large number of drives in parallel. The overall performance was greatly improved and the resulting innovation was marketed originally as the HADA (High Availability Disk Array) and then later as the CLARiiON line. The CLARiiON arrays, which offered SCSI RAID in various capacities, offered a great price/performance and platform flexibility over competing solutions. The CLARiiON line was marketed not only to AViiON and Data General MV series customers, but also to customers running servers from other vendors such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett Packard and Silicon Graphics. Data General also embarked on a plan to hire storage sales specialists and to challenge EMC's Symmetrix in the wider market. Joint venture with Soviet companyOn December 12, 1989, DG and Soviet Union software developer NPO Parma announced Perekat, the first joint venture between an American computer company and a Soviet company. DG would provide hardware and NPO Parma the software, and Austrian companies Voest Alpine Industrieanlagenbau GmbH and their marketing group Voest Alpine Vertriebe would build the plant.[19] Final downturn and EMC takeoverDespite Data General's betting the AViiON farm on the Motorola 88000,[20] Motorola decided to end production of that line. The 88000 had never been very successful, and DG was the only major customer. When Apple Computer and IBM proposed their joint solution based on POWER architecture, the PowerPC, Motorola picked up the manufacturing contract and killed the 88000. DG quickly responded and introduced new models of the AViiON series based on a true commodity processor, the Intel x86 series. By this time a number of other vendors, notably Sequent Computer Systems, were also introducing similar machines. The lack of lock-in now came back to haunt DG, and the rapid commoditization of the Unix market led to shrinking sales. DG did begin a minor shift toward the service industry, training their technicians for the role of implementing a spate of new x86-based servers and the new Microsoft Windows NT domain-driven, small server world. This never developed enough to offset the loss of high margin server business however. Data General also targeted the explosion of the internet in the latter 1990s with the formation of the THiiN Line business unit, led by Tom West, which had a focus on creation and sale of so-called "internet appliances". The product developed was called the SiteStak web server appliance and was designed as an inexpensive website hosting product. CLARiiON did better after finding a large niche for Unix storage systems,[21] and its sales were still strong enough to make DG a takeover target. EMC Corporation, a major data storage company, announced in August 1999 that they would buy Data General and its assets for $1.1 Billion or $19.58 a share.[22] The acquisition was completed on October 12, 1999.[23] Although details of the acquisition specified that EMC had to take the entire company, and not just the storage line, EMC quickly ended all development and production of DG computer hardware and parts, effectively ending Data General's presence in the segment. The maintenance business was sold to a third party, who also acquired all of DG's remaining hardware components for spare parts sales to old DG customers. The CLARiiON line continued to be a major player in the market, and was marketed under that name until January 2012.[24] CLARiiON was also widely sold by DELL through a worldwide OEM deal with EMC. The Clariion and Celerra storage products evolved into EMC's unified storage platform, the VNX platform. Data General would be only one of many New England based computer companies, including the original Digital Equipment Corporation, that collapsed or were sold to larger companies after the 1980s. On the Internet, even the old Data General domain (dg.com), which contained a few EMC webpages that only mentioned the latter company in passing, was sold to the Dollar General discount department store chain in October 2009. MarketingData General exhibited a brash style of marketing and advertising, which acted to set the company in the spotlight. A memorable advertising campaign during the early 1980s Desktop Generation era, was issuance of T-shirts with the logo "We did it on a desktop". The early AViiON servers were portrayed as powerful computing in the size of a pizza box. Alumni
Notes1. ^{{cite newspaper |newspaper=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/10/02/archives/the-maxigrowth-of-minicomputers.html|title=The Maxigrowth of Minicomputers|author=Stanley Klein |date=October 2, 1977}} 2. ^1 2 {{cite web|title=Computer History Museum - Data General Corporation (DG) - 840 the loaded nova|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/brochures/companies.php?alpha=d-f|website=www.computerhistory.org|accessdate=27 July 2016}} 3. ^{{cite news|last=White|first=Donald|title=The Data General Corp., New firm, new line of computers|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=July 28, 1968|page=B-25}} 4. ^1 {{cite web|title=The Business That Time Forgot Data General is gone. But does that make its founder a failure? - April 1, 2003|url=http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fsb/fsb_archive/2003/04/01/341000/|website=money.cnn.com|accessdate=27 July 2016}} 5. ^1 {{cite web |title=What Have We Learned from the PDP-11? |url=https://dave.cheney.net/2017/12/04/what-have-we-learned-from-the-pdp-11|date=December 4, 2017|quote=Edson de Castro, the product manager of the PDP-8, ...}} 6. ^{{cite web |title=Data General Nova, serial #1|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/minicomputers/11/338/1940|quote=This first completed Nova was shipped to Unitech in Austin, TX to be used by Mobil Oil... 1969.}} 7. ^{{cite web|url=http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Data_General/DGC.Nova.1968.102646102.pdf|title=Nova brochure|year=1968|accessdate=12 August 2014}} 8. ^Data General Corp. v. Digital Computer Controls, Inc. 9. ^{{cite web|title=Data General Corporation (DG) - Selling the Computer Revolution|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/brochures/d-f}} 10. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/xerox/alto/memos_1974/Alto_A_Personal_Computer_Dec74.pdf|title=Alto: A Personal Computer System|author1=Charles P. Thacker|author2=Edward M. McCreight|page=13|date=December 1974}} 11. ^{{cite web |title=Data General|url=http://encyclopedia.kids.net.au/page/da/Data_General}} 12. ^1 {{cite web|title=Data General's Tom West dies |website=The Register|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/05/24/tom_west_obit |date=May 24, 2011 |quote=The 16-bit Eclipse was a problem-strewn product}} 13. ^{{cite web|title=VAX 11/780 |url=http://www.old-computers.com/history/detail.asp?n=20&t=3|quote=The VAX 11/780 was introduced on October 25, 1977 at the Digital Equipment Corporation's Annual Meeting of Shareholders. It was the first member of the VAX family.}} 14. ^{{ cite book |title=Transferring technology to improve forest land management|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p7ykaIsCm3QC |date=1989 |quote=In the first 2 years of Data General operation, the Forest Service increased its productivity by saving almost 1/2 million hours of employee time.}} 15. ^{{cite web |author=Brian Kelly |website=TechArchives|url=http://techarchives.irish/minicomputer-systems-and-software-1969-82/brian-kelly|title=Minicomputers and Software |quote=The Comprehensive Electronic Office (CEO) featured word processing...}} 16. ^{{cite book|title=New International Dictionary of Acronyms in Library and Information Sciences|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3110957825 |isbn=3110957825|author1=Henryk Sawoniak |author2=Maria Witt |date=1994 |quote=Interactive Data Entry/Access (Data General Corp. - US) IDEA}} 17. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Eriksen|first1=Denise C.|title=A synopsis of present day practices concerning decision support systems|journal=Information & Management|volume=7|issue=5|year=1984|pages=243–252|issn=0378-7206|doi=10.1016/0378-7206(84)90048-X}} 18. ^{{citation|last=King|first=Julia|title=Open Systems: How open are they?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxwEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA1|volume=4|date=14 September 1987|publisher=IDG Network World Inc|pages=1, 35–38, 40|issn=0887-7661|work=Network World|issue=37}} 19. ^{{cite news|title=DG to Enter Soviet Market 'Foothold' in Untapped Area|last=Donker|first=Peter P.|work=Worcester Telegram & Gazette|date=13 December 1989}} 20. ^{{cite web|title=History of Data General Corporation |url=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/data-general-corporation-history|quote=... a long way to go .... Skates proceeded to pare costs and plan Data General's future around the AViiON line.}} 21. ^{{cite magazine |magazine=ComputerWorld |date=August 10, 1999 |title=EMC to buy Data General for $US1.1B |url=https://www.computerworld.com.au/article/104292/emc_buy_data_general_us1_1b|quote=Storage systems, software and services vendor EMC is to buy Data General for ... of Data General whose flagship Clariion line targets midrange storage systems}} 22. ^{{cite press release|url=https://www.emc.com/about/news/press/us/1999/19990809-71.htm|title=EMC to Acquire Data General|date=August 9, 1999}} 23. ^{{cite press release|url=https://www.emc.com/about/news/press/us/1999/19991012-55.htm|title=EMC Announces Completion of Data General Acquisition|date=October 12, 1999}} 24. ^{{cite web |url= https://www.networkcomputing.com/storage/emc-discontinues-clariion-celerra-storage-lines/1730497075 |title=EMC Discontinues Clariion, Celerra Storage Lines |first=Deni |last=Connor |website=Network Computing |date=23 August 2011 |accessdate=23 January 2012}} 25. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.delorie.com/users/dj/|title=dj delorie|publisher=}} 26. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.simple-talk.com/opinion/geek-of-the-week/ron-gruner-geek-of-the-week/|title=Ron Gruner: Geek of the Week - Simple Talk|date=25 July 2012|publisher=}} 27. ^Microsoft PressPass - Microsoft Executives and Images 28. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/press_kits/bios/Mike_Nash_bio.pdf|title=Executive Biography - Mike Nash}} 29. ^{{cite web|url=http://www2.cla.umn.edu/clatoday/W2003/waldfogel.html|title=Asher Waldfogel: A choice beyond reason|date=2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310004720/http://www2.cla.umn.edu/clatoday/W2003/waldfogel.html|archive-date=March 10, 2008}} 30. ^{{cite book|last=Kidder|first=Tracy|title=The Soul of a New Machine|year=1981 |origyear=1997|publisher=Modern Library|isbn=978-0-316-49170-9}} References{{Refbegin}}
External links
9 : Data General|Computer companies established in 1968|EMC Corporation|Defunct computer hardware companies|Defunct software companies|Defunct computer companies based in Massachusetts|Computer companies disestablished in 1999|1968 establishments in Massachusetts|1999 disestablishments in Massachusetts |
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