1. Sources of influence
     Primary    An-Nisa    Secondary  

2. Gender roles

3. Female education
     The classical position    History of women's education    Current situation  

4. Female employment
     History    Modern era  

5. Financial and legal matters
     Financial and legal agency: The classical position    Property rights    Economic equity    Sexual crimes and sins    Zina   Qadhf and Li’an  Rape   Witness of woman    Domestic violence  

6. Love
     Romantic love    Love of women  

7. Beauty
     Female beauty  

8. Marriage
     Metaphysical and cosmological significance of marriage    Legal framework    Marriage ceremony and celebrations    Historical commonality of divorce    Polygamy    Polyandry    Endogamy    Forbidden marriages    Age of marriage    Interfaith marriages and Muslim women    Behaviour and rights within marriage    Sexuality    General parameters    Sexual satisfaction and frequency of intercourse    Foreplay    Simultaneous orgasms    Female genital mutilation    The classical position    Notable Islamic perspectives on FGM    Initiatives to end FGM in the OIC    Recorded prevalence of FGM in the OIC    Contraception    Female infanticide    Divorce    Obligations during divorce  

9. Family
     Pregnancy, childbirth and breastfeeding    Motherhood  

10. Movement and travel
     1990-2017 Saudi driving ban  Menstruation regulations 

11. Dress code
      Clothing materials    Silk    Public versus private appearance    Religious objections to the modern ḥijāb    Effect of globalisation on Muslim women's couture  

12. Shrines and mosques
      The Virgin Mary    Hala Sultan    Sayeda Zainab    Fātimah al-Ma'sūmah    Rabi'āh al-'Adawiyyah    Ruqayyah bint Ali  

13. Religious life
      Sufi female mystics    Current female religious scholars  

14. Politics
      Female heads of state in Muslim-majority countries during the modern era    Female legislators in Muslim-majority countries in the 21st century    Muslim Women and Islamophobia  

15. Sport
      Islamic Solidarity Games  

16. Comparison with other religions
      Eve's role in the Fall    The Virgin Mary    Polygamy    Sexuality  

17. Notable women in Islam
      Saints, scholars, and spiritual teachers    Female converts to Islam  

18. Modern debate on the status of women in Islam
      Conservatives and the Islamic movement    Liberal Islam, Islamic feminism, and other progressive criticism  

19. See also

20. Notes

21. References

22. Further reading

23. External links

The experiences of Muslim women ({{Lang-ar|مسلمات}} Muslimāt, singular مسلمة Muslima) vary widely between and within different societies.^[2] At the same time, their adherence to Islam is a shared factor that affects their lives to a varying degree and gives them a common identity that may serve to bridge the wide cultural, social, and economic differences between them.^[2]

Among the influences which have played an important role in defining the social, spiritual and cosmological status of women in the course of Islamic history are Islam's sacred text, the Qur'an; the Ḥadīths, which are traditions relating to the deeds and aphorisms of Islam's Prophet Muḥammad;^[3] ijmā', which is a consensus, expressed or tacit, on a question of law;^[4] qiyās, the principle by which the laws of the Qur'an and the Sunnah or Prophetic custom are applied to situations not explicitly covered by these two sources of legislation;^[5] and fatwas, non-binding published opinions or decisions regarding religious doctrine or points of law. Additional influences include pre-Islamic cultural traditions; secular laws, which are fully accepted in Islam so long as they do not directly contradict Islamic precepts;^[6] religious authorities, including government-controlled agencies such as the Indonesian Ulema Council and Turkey's Diyanet;^[7] and spiritual teachers, which are particularly prominent in Islamic mysticism or Sufism. Many of the latter{{snd}}including perhaps most famously, Ibn al-'Arabī{{snd}}have themselves produced texts that have elucidated the metaphysical symbolism of the feminine principle in Islam.^[8]

There is considerable variation as to how the above sources are interpreted by Orthodox Muslims, both Sunni and Shi'a{{snd}}approximately 90% of the world's Muslim population{{snd}}and ideological fundamentalists, most notably those subscribing to Wahhabism or Salafism, who comprise roughly 9% of the total.^[9] In particular, Wahhabis and Salafists tend to reject mysticism and theology outright; this has profound implications for the way that women are perceived within these ideological sects.^[10] Conversely, within Islamic Orthodoxy, both the established theological schools and Sufism are at least somewhat influential.^[11]

Sources of influence

There are four sources of influence under Islam for Muslim women. The first two, the Quran and Hadiths, are considered primary sources, while the other two are secondary and derived sources that differ between various Muslim sects and schools of Islamic jurisprudence. The secondary sources of influence include ijma, qiyas and, in forms such as fatwa, ijtihad.^[12][13][14]

Primary

Women in Islam are provided a number of guidelines under Quran and hadiths, as understood by fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) as well as of the interpretations derived from the hadith that were agreed upon by majority of Sunni scholars as authentic beyond doubt based on hadith studies.^[16][17] These interpretations and their application were shaped by the historical context of the Muslim world at the time they were written.^[16]

During his life, Muhammad married nine or eleven women depending upon the differing accounts of who were his wives. In Arabian culture, marriage was generally contracted in accordance with the larger needs of the tribe and was based on the need to form alliances within the tribe and with other tribes. Virginity at the time of marriage was emphasised as a tribal honour.^[18] William Montgomery Watt states that all of Muhammad's marriages had the political aspect of strengthening friendly relationships and were based on the Arabian custom.^[19]

An-Nisa

Secondary

The above primary sources of influence on women of Islam do not deal with every conceivable situation over time. This led to the development of jurisprudence and religious schools with Islamic scholars that referred to resources such as identifying authentic documents, internal discussions and establishing a consensus to find the correct religiously approved course of action for Muslims.^[12][13] These formed the secondary sources of influence for women. Among them are ijma, qiya, ijtihad and others depending on sect and the school of Islamic law. Included in secondary sources are fatwas, which are often widely distributed, orally or in writing by Muslim clerics, to the masses, in local language and describe behavior, roles and rights of women that conforms with religious requirements. Fatwas are theoretically non-binding, but seriously considered and have often been practiced by most Muslim believers. The secondary sources typically fall into five types of influence: the declared role or behavior for Muslims, both women and men, is considered obligatory, commendable, permissible, despised or prohibited. There is considerable controversy, change over time, and conflict between the secondary sources.^[22][23][24]

Gender roles

Gender roles in Islam are simultaneously coloured by two Qur'anic precepts: (i) spiritual equality between women and men; and (ii) the idea that women are meant to exemplify femininity, and men masculinity.^[28]

Spiritual equality between women and men is detailed in Sūrat al-Aḥzāb (33:35):

Islam's basic view of women and men postulates a complementarity of functions: like everything else in the universe, humanity has been created in a pair (Sūrat al-Dhāriyāt, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150704231846/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/051-qmt.php 51:49]){{snd}}neither can be complete without the other.^[30] In Islamic cosmological thinking, the universe is perceived as an equilibrium built on harmonious polar relationships between the pairs that make up all things.^[30] Moreover, all outward phenomena are reflections of inward noumena and ultimately of God.^[30]

The emphasis which Islam places upon the feminine/masculine polarity (and therefore complementarity) results in a separation of social functions.^[31] In general, a woman's sphere of operation is the home in which she is the dominant figure{{snd}}and a man's corresponding sphere is the outside world.^[32] {{better source|date=April 2017}}However, this separation is not, in practice, as rigid as it appears.^[31] There are many examples{{snd}}both in the early history of Islam and in the contemporary world{{snd}}of Muslim women who have played prominent roles in public life, including being sultanas, queens, elected heads of state and wealthy businesswomen. Moreover, it is important to recognise that in Islam, home and family are firmly situated at the centre of life in this world and of society: a man's work cannot take precedence over the private realm.^[32]

The Quran dedicates numerous verses to Muslim women, their role, duties and rights, in addition to Sura 4 with 176 verses named "An-Nisa" ("Women").^[33]

Islam differentiates the gender role of women who believe in Islam and those who do not.{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} The Muslim male's right to own slave women, seized during military campaigns and jihad against non-believing pagans and infidels from Southern Europe to Africa to India to Central Asia, was considered natural.^[34][35] Slave women could be sold without their consent, expected to provide concubinage, required permission from their owner to marry; and children born to them were automatically considered Muslim under Islamic law if the father was a Muslim.^[36][37][38]

Female education

The classical position

Both the Qur'an{{snd}}Islam's sacred text{{snd}}and the spoken or acted example of Muḥammad (sunnah) advocate the rights of women and men equally to seek knowledge.^[40] The Qur'an commands all Muslims to exert effort in the pursuit of knowledge, irrespective of their biological sex: it constantly encourages Muslims to read, think, contemplate and learn from the signs of God in nature.^[40] Moreover, Muḥammad encouraged education for both males and females: he declared that seeking knowledge was a religious duty binding upon every Muslim man and woman.^[41] Like her male counterpart, each woman is under a moral and religious obligation to seek knowledge, develop her intellect, broaden her outlook, cultivate her talents and then utilise her potential to the benefit of her soul and her society.^[42]

The interest of Muḥammad in female education was manifest in the fact that he himself used to teach women along with men.^[42]{{better source|date=January 2018}} Muḥammad's teachings were widely sought by both sexes, and accordingly at the time of his death it was reported that there were many female scholars of Islam.^[41] Additionally, the wives of Muḥammad{{snd}}particularly Aisha{{snd}}also taught both women and men; many of Muḥammad's companions and followers learned the Qur'an, ḥadīth and Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) from Aisha.^[43] Notably, there was no restriction placed on the type of knowledge acquired: a woman was free to choose any field of knowledge that interested her.^[44] Because Islam recognises that women are in principle wives and mothers, the acquisition of knowledge in fields which are complementary to these social roles was specially emphasised.^[45]

History of women's education

James E. Lindsay said that Islam encouraged religious education of Muslim women.^[57] According to a hadith in Saḥih Muslim variously attributed to 'Ā'isha and Muhammad, the women of the ansar were praiseworthy because shame did not prevent them from asking detailed questions about Islamic law.^[46][47]

While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal religious schools, it was common for women to attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madrasas and other public places. For example, the attendance of women at the Fatimid Caliphate's "sessions of wisdom" (majālis al-ḥikma) was noted by various historians, including Ibn al-Tuwayr, al-Muṣabbiḥī and Imam.^[48] Historically, some Muslim women played an important role in the foundation of many religious educational institutions, such as Fatima al-Fihri's founding of the University of al-Karaouine in {{CE|859}}.^[49]{{rp|274}} According to the 12th-century Sunni scholar Ibn 'Asakir, there were various opportunities for female education in what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. He writes that women could study, earn ijazahs (religious degrees) and qualify as ulama and Islamic teachers.^[49]{{rp|196, 198}} Similarly, al-Sakhawi devotes one of the twelve volumes of his biographical dictionary Daw al-Lami to female religious scholars between 700 and {{CE|1800}}, giving information on 1,075 of them.

During the colonial era, until the early 20th century, there was a gender struggle among Muslims in the British empire; educating women was viewed as a prelude to social chaos, a threat to the moral order, and man's world was viewed as a source of Muslim identity.^[53] Muslim women in British India, nevertheless, pressed for their rights independent of men; by the 1930s, 2.5 million girls had entered schools of which 0.5 million were Muslims.^[53]

Current situation

Literacy

In a 2013 statement, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation noted that restricted access to education is among the challenges faced by girls and women in the developing world, including OIC member states.^[56] UNICEF notes that out of 24 nations with less than 60% female primary enrollment rates, 17 were Islamic nations; more than half the adult population is illiterate in several Islamic countries, and the proportion reaches 70% among Muslim women.^[57] UNESCO estimates that the literacy rate among adult women was about 50% or less in a number of Muslim-majority countries, including Morocco, Yemen, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Niger, Mali, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, and Chad.^[58] Egypt had a women literacy rate of 64% in 2010, Iraq of 71% and Indonesia of 90%.^[58] While literacy has been improving in Saudi Arabia since the 1970s, the overall female literacy rate in 2005 was 50%, compared to male literacy of 72%.^[59]

Gender and participation in education

Some scholars^[60][61] contend that Islamic nations have the world's highest gender gap in education. The 2012 World Economic Forum annual gender gap study finds the 17 out of 18 worst performing nations, out of a total of 135 nations, are the following members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC): Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, (Nepal^[62]), Turkey, Oman, Egypt, Iran, Mali, Morocco, Côte d'Ivoire, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Chad, Pakistan and Yemen.^[63]

In contrast, UNESCO notes that at 37% the share of female researchers in Arab states compares well with other regions.^[65] In Turkey, the proportion of female university researchers is slightly higher (36%) than the average for the 27-member European Union as of 2012 (33%).^[66] In Iran, women account for over 60% of university students.^[67] Similarly, in Malaysia,^[68] Algeria,^[69] and in Saudi Arabia,^[70] the majority of university students have been female in recent years, while in 2016 Emirati women constituted 76.8% of people enrolled at universities in the United Arab Emirates.^[71] At the University of Jordan, which is Jordan's largest and oldest university, 65% of students were female in 2013.^[72]

In a number of OIC member states, the ratio of women to men in tertiary education is exceptionally high. Qatar leads the world in this respect, having 6.66 females in higher education for every male as of 2015.^[73] Other Muslim-majority states with notably more women university students than men include Kuwait, where 41% of females attend university compared with 18% of males;^[73] Bahrain, where the ratio of women to men in tertiary education is 2.18:1;^[73] Brunei Darussalam, where 33% of women enroll at university vis à vis 18% of men;^[73] Tunisia, which has a women to men ratio of 1.62 in higher education; and Kyrgyzstan, where the equivalent ratio is 1.61.^[73] Additionally, in Kazakhstan, there were 115 female students for every 100 male students in tertiary education in 1999; according to the World Bank, this ratio had increased to 144:100 by 2008.^[74]

However, in the United States, a recent study done by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding found that Muslim American women (73%) are more likely than Muslim American men (57%) to achieve higher education (post-high school education or higher).^[75]

Female employment

Some scholars^[96][76] refer to verse 28:23 in the Quran and to Khadijah, Muhammad's first wife, a merchant before and after converting to Islam, as indications that Muslim women may undertake employment outside their homes.

Traditional interpretations of Islam require a woman to have her husband's permission to leave the house and take up employment,^[77][78][79] though scholars such as Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa^[80] and Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Ebrahim Jannaati^[81] have said that women do not require a husband's permission to leave the house and work.

History

During medieval times, the labor force in Spanish Caliphate included women in diverse occupations and economic activities such as farming, construction workers, textile workers, managing slave girls, collecting taxes from prostitutes, as well as presidents of guilds, creditors, religious scholars.
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145. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.guardiannews.com/world/2003/jan/04/france.jonhenley1 |title=French 'rape victim' faces jail for adultery |author=Jon Henley |work=The Guardian |date=January 3, 2002 |accessdate=January 6, 2013}}
146. ^Shahnaz Khan, Zina: Transnational Feminism, and the Moral Regulation of Pakistani Women, University of British Columbia Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7748-1285-6}}, {{pp.|58|63}}.
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148. ^Fatima-Zahra Lamrani, Rape as Loss of Honor in the Discourse of Moroccan Rape Trials {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020062848/http://www.languageandlaw.de/Volume-2/3314 |date=October 20, 2013 }}, Language and Law, June 2004
149. ^{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6178214.stm | work=BBC News | title=Pakistan senate backs rape bill | date=23 November 2006}}
150. ^Elizabeth Flock, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/afghan-woman-freed-from-jail-after-agreeing-to-marry-rapist/2011/12/01/gIQAdW1UHO_blog.html Afghan woman freed from jail after agreeing to marry rapist], The Washington Post, December 1, 2011.
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153. ^Ouis, P. (2009). "Honourable Traditions{{spaced ndash}}Honour Violence, Early Marriage and Sexual Abuse of Teenage Girls in Lebanon, Occupied Palestinian Territories and Yemen". International Journal of Child Rights, 17, 445.
154. ^Pernilla Ouis and Tove Myhrman (editors): "A New Approach: Gender-Based Sexual Violence as a Violation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child". Gender-Based Sexual Violence Against Teenage Girls in the Middle East, Sweden, 2007. {{ISBN|978-91-7321-256-4}}.
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157. ^^1 2 Rudolph Peters, Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-521-79226-4}}, pp 15-29 and 177-178
158. ^Kelly, S. (2010), Recent gains and new opportunities for women's rights in the Gulf Arab states, Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Gulf Edition; Editors: Kelly and Breslin; {{ISBN|978-1-4422-0396-9}}
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160. ^Percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband/partner is justified in hitting or beating his wife/partner under certain circumstances UNICEF (2013)
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172. ^Following verses of Quran and Hadiths are most cited by secondary and tertiary sources on permissibility of domestic violence under Islamic law*Steps recommended to Muslim husband for chastising his Muslim wife{{quran-usc|4|34}}*Aisha discusses wife beating with Allah's messenger: {{Hadith-usc|Bukhari|usc=yes|7|72|715}}*Muhammad hit A'isha on chest which caused her pain: {{Hadith-usc|Muslim|usc=yes|4|2127}}*Muhammad's statement that a man should not be questioned for beating his wife: {{Hadith-usc|abudawud|usc=yes|11|2142}}
173. ^Bakhtiar, Laleh.[https://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/25/world/americas/25iht-koran.4.5017346.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all Verse in Koran on beating wife gets a new translation.] New York Times (March 25, 2007)
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522. ^¹ {{Cite news|url=http://scroll.in/article/669083/muslim-women-and-the-surprising-facts-about-polygamy-in-india|title=Muslim women and the surprising facts about polygamy in India|last=Venkataramakrishnan|first=Rohan|date=8 July 2014|work=Scroll.in|access-date=9 June 2018}}
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528. ^Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: Prophet for Our Time, HarperPress, 2006, pp.37-38 {{ISBN|0-00-723245-4}}
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530. ^¹ Annemarie Schimmel, Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam, State University of New York Press, 1994, p.199
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532. ^Amatul Rahman Omar, "First Woman to Translate the Qur'an into English", The Holy Qur'an, English Translation, 1990. {{ISBN|0-9766972-3-8}}
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534. ^{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/3663771.stm |title=A Muslim in the family |work=BBC News |date=1 May 2004}}
535. ^{{Cite web|url=http://5pillarsuk.com/2013/12/12/im-disgusted-by-how-some-muslims-reacted-to-mandelas-death/|title=I’m disgusted by how some Muslims reacted to Mandela’s death|last=Ridley|first=Yvonne|date=12 December 2013|website=5Pillars|access-date=2017-02-23}}
536. ^Karen Armstrong, From MTV to Mecca: How Islam Inspired My Life, Arcadia Books Ltd and Awakening Publications, 2012, p.135
537. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ramadan-2014-muhammad-ali-janet-jackson-other-stars-who-converted-islam-1454182|title=Ramadan 2014: Muhammad Ali, Janet Jackson and other Stars who Converted to Islam|work=International Business Times UK|accessdate=May 25, 2016}}
538. ^{{Cite news|url = http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/ramadan-2014-former-playboy-bunny-felixia-yeap-converts-islam-1455372|title = Ramadan 2014: Former Playboy Bunny Felixia Yeap Converts To Islam|last = Owoseje|first = Toyin|date = 4 July 2014|work = International Business Times UK|accessdate = 11 July 2014}}
539. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.expats.cz/prague/article/weekly-czech-news/czech-beauty-queen-converts-to-islam/|title=Czech Beauty Queen Converts to Islam|last=Park|first=Dave|date=29 February 2016|website=expats.cz|publisher=Howlings SRO|access-date=22 June 2016}}
540. ^{{Cite news|url = http://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2014/09/140060/former-candidate-for-miss-belgium-converts-to-islam/|title = Former candidate for Miss Belgium converts to Islam|date = 25 September 2014|work = Morocco World News|access-date = 13 July 2015|via = }}
541. ^{{Cite web|url=https://www.welt.de/vermischtes/prominente/article8163658/Oezils-Freundin-ist-zum-Islam-uebergetreten.html|title=Özils Freundin ist zum Islam übergetreten|last=Schwester|first=Connors|date=24 June 2010|website=Die Welt|access-date=25 May 2018}}
542. ^{{Cite news|url = http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=lithuanian-model-stays-away-from-turkish-cuisine-2011-04-15|title = Lithuanian model and expat stars in Turkish TV series|last = Gence|first = Hakan|date = 15 April 2011|work = Hürriyet Daily News|access-date = 19 June 2015|via = |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150619045525/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/default.aspx?pageid=438&n=lithuanian-model-stays-away-from-turkish-cuisine-2011-04-15|archive-date = June 19, 2015|dead-url = yes|df = mdy-all}}
543. ^{{Cite news|url = http://www.ensonhaber.com/ivana-sert-musluman-olacagim-2014-07-25.html|title = Ivana Sert: Müslüman olacağım ('Ivana Sert: I will be a Muslim')|date = 25 July 2014|work = En Son Haber|access-date = 19 June 2015|via = }}
544. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.elsevier.nl/nieuws/politiek/dossier/asp/portal/0/sctr/0/dossier/290/hoofdstuk/2/sortering/False/artikel/12785/bt//index.html |title=Dutch article link: 'Ik geloof niet meer' |publisher=Elsevier.nl |date= |accessdate=February 16, 2012}}
545. ^"I was born in a Muslim family, but I became an atheist." For freedom of expression, Taslima Nasreen, November 12, 1999 – Taslima Nasreen took the floor during Commission V of UNESCO's General Conference, as a delegate of the NGO International Humanist and Ethical Union (Accessed December 23, 2006).
546. ^Darabi, Parvin Rage Against the Veil: The Courageous Life and Death of an Islamic Dissident {{ISBN|1-57392-682-5}}.
547. ^Susan Crimp and Joel Richardson (2008), Why We Left Islam: Former Muslims Speak Out, {{ISBN|978-0-9792671-0-9}}
548. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/erdogans-toilet-isnt-golden-eccentric-turkish-model-confirms.aspx?pageID=238&nID=84719&NewsCatID=338|title=Erdoğan's toilet isn't golden, eccentric Turkish model confirms|last=|first=|date=29 June 2015|website=Hürriyet Daily News|publisher=Doğan Media Group|access-date=19 June 2016}}
549. ^{{Cite news|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/women--islam-the-rise-and-rise-of-the-convert-6258015.html|title = Women & Islam: The rise and rise of the convert|last = Peppiatt|first = Richard|date = 6 November 2011|work = The Independent|access-date = 13 July 2015|via = }}
550. ^{{Cite news|url = http://wlrn.org/post/why-so-many-latinos-are-becoming-muslims|title = Why So Many Latinos Are Becoming Muslims|last = Padgett|first = Tim|date = 9 October 2013|work = WLRN|access-date = 13 July 2015|via = }}
551. ^{{Cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319085650/http://faithcommunitiestoday.org/sites/faithcommunitiestoday.org/files/The%20American%20Mosque%202011%20web.pdf|archive-date=2015-03-19|url = http://faithcommunitiestoday.org/sites/faithcommunitiestoday.org/files/The%20American%20Mosque%202011%20web.pdf|title = The American Mosque 2011: Report Number 1 from the US Mosque Study 2011|date = January 2012|accessdate = 13 July 2015|website = Faith Communities Today|publisher = Cooperative Congregations Studies Partnership|last = Bagby|first = Ihsan}}
552. ^{{Cite book|title = Islam in the Nordic and Baltic Countries|last = Larsson|first = Göran|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0-415-84536-6|location = New York|pages = 121}}
553. ^{{Cite web|url = http://www.con-spiration.de/texte/english/2010/leuenberger-e.html#sl|title = Various Motives: Conversion to Islam in Europe|date = |accessdate = 13 July 2015|website = Public Con-Spiracy for the Poor (CS)|publisher = Ernst Förster SJ|last = Leuenberger|first = Susanne}}
554. ^^1 2 Deniz Kandiyoti, "Women, Islam and the State", Middle East Report, No. 173, Gender and Politics. (November–December 1991), pp. 9–14.
555. ^Quoted in Grand Ayatollah Makarim Shirazi, Tafsir Nemoneh, on verse 4:12.
556. ^{{cite web|first=M. J. |last=Gohari |year=2000|title=The Taliban: Ascent to Power|location=Oxford|work= Oxford University Press| pages= 108–110}}
557. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm|title=We're sorry, that page can't be found.|website=www.state.gov}}
558. ^M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108–110.
559. ^Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Chronology of Events January 1995 – February 1997." UNHCR.org. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018053315/http://www.unhcr.org/home/RSDCOI/3ae6a84d0.html |date=October 18, 2012 }}
560. ^US Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. [https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/6185.htm "Report on the Taliban's War Against Women."] State.gov (November 17, 2001).
561. ^{{cite web|url= http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/talibans-war-on-women.pdf |title=The Taliban's War on Women }} {{small|(857 KB)}}, Physicians for Human Rights, August 1998.
562. ^A woman being flogged in public {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070307140111/http://www.rawa.us/movies/beating.mpg |date=March 7, 2007 }}
563. ^See, e.g., Tahereh Saffarzadeh, Masumeh Ebtekar, Marzieh Dabbaq and Zahra Rahnavard.
564. ^Esfandiari, Golnaz. "Iran: Number Of Female University Students Rising Dramatically." Radio Free Europe/Free Liberty (November 19, 2003).
565. ^Haddad, Moore, and Smith, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7A77E1aBrucC&pg=PA19&dq=women+islam+ijtihad&sig=m8nq7yBpwuuF_QfQ4IHSZ_zavZw p19].
566. ^Madran, Margot. "Islamic feminism: what's in a name?" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320074746/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm |date=March 20, 2015 }} Al-Ahram Weekly Online, issue no. 569 (January 17–23, 2002).
567. ^{{cite web|ssrn=1526868|title= The Role of Islamic Shari'ah in Protecting Women's Rights}}
568. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.monitor.upeace.org/innerpg.cfm?id_article=789|last= Wagner|first= Rob L.|title=Saudi-Islamic Feminist Movement: A Struggle for Male Allies and the Right Female Voice|work=University for Peace (Peace and Conflict Monitor)|date= March 29, 2011}}
569. ^United States Institute of Peace. Islam and Democracy
570. ^Women in Religious Peacebuilding Peace Watch (August 2002).
571. ^Kamguian, Azam. "The Liberation of Women in the Middle East." NTPI.org.
572. ^¹ {{Cite news| publisher=The New York Review of Books | date=May 10, 2006 | title=Islam in Europe | author=Timothy Garton Ash | url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/19371}}
573. ^Feminist author Phyllis Chesler, for example, asserted: "Islamists oppose the ideals of dignity and equality for women by their practice of gender apartheid." (Kathryn Jean Lopez, "Witness to the Death of Feminism: Phyllis Chesler on Her Sisterhood at War" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808174154/http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/chesler200603080754.asp |date=August 8, 2007 }}. National Review (March 8, 2006).)
574. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gender+apartheid%22+islam|title="gender apartheid" islam - Google Search|website=www.google.com}}
575. ^Kathryn Jean Lopez, "Witness to the Death of Feminism: Phyllis Chesler on Her Sisterhood at War" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808174154/http://www.nationalreview.com/interrogatory/chesler200603080754.asp |date=August 8, 2007 }}. National Review (March 8, 2006).
576. ^Helena Andrews, [https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/08/world/middleeast/08women.html "Muslim Women Don't See Themselves as Oppressed, Survey Finds"], The New York Times, June 8, 2006.
577. ^{{cite news|last=Berger|first=Sebastien|title=Malaysian Muslim women 'live under apartheid' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/malaysia/1512732/Malaysian-Muslim-women-live-under-apartheid.html |work=The Daily Telegraph |accessdate=September 3, 2011 |location=London |date=March 11, 2006}}
578. ^{{cite news|last=England|first=Vaudine|title=Malaysian groups welcome first Islamic female judges|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10567857 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=September 3, 2011|date=July 9, 2010}}
579. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3476446/Journalist-wins-gender-discrimination-case-against-Islamic-extremist-group-Hizb-ut-Tahir.html |title=Journalist wins gender discrimination case against Islamic group Hizb ut-Tahrir after they forced her to sit in a segregated women's area at one of their lectures|author=Huffadine, Leith|date=5 March 2016|work=Daily Mail|accessdate=5 March 2016}}
580. ^{{cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/islamic-group-ordered-to-stop-segregating-men-and-women-20160304-gnapaa.html |title=Islamic group ordered to stop segregating men and women |author=Visentin, Lisa|date=5 March 2016|work=Sydney Morning Herald|accessdate=5 March 2016}}
581. ^{{cite news|url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/nsw/a/31017155/islamist-fundamentalist-group-hizb-ut-tahrir-found-guilty-of-gender-discrimination/ |title=Islamist fundamentalist group Hizb ut-Tahrir found guilty of gender discrimination |author=Seymour, Brian |date=4 March 2016|work=Yahoo 7 News|accessdate=5 March 2016}}

References

• {{cite book|last1=Abou El Fadl|first1=Khaled|authorlink=Khaled Abou El Fadl|editor1-last=Owens|editor1-first=Erik C.|editor2-last=Carlson|editor2-first=John David|editor3-last=Elshtain|editor3-first=Eric P.|title=Religion and the Death Penalty: A Call for Reckoning|date=2004|publisher=W. B. Eerdmans Publishing|location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=0-8028-2172-3|chapter=The Death Penalty, Mercy, and Islam: A Call for Retrospection}}
• {{cite book| last=Friedmann | first=Yohanan | authorlink=Yohanan Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition |location=Cambridge|publisher= Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-521-02699-4}}
• {{cite book|last1=Ghamidi|first1=Javed Ahmed|authorlink1=Javed Ahmed Ghamidi|title=Mizan|title-link=Mizan|date=2001|publisher=Al-Mawrid}}
• {{cite book|last1=Glassé|first1=Cyril|title=New Encyclopedia of Islam|date=2001|publisher=AltaMira|location=Walnut Creek, CA|isbn=0-7591-0189-2|edition=Rev.}}
• {{cite book|editor1-last=Haddad|editor1-first=Yvonne Yazbeck|editorlink=Yvonne Haddad|editor2-last=Esposito|editor2-first=John L.|editorlink2=John Esposito|title=Islam, Gender & Social Change|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0195113578}}
• {{cite book|last1=Haddad|first1=Yvonne Yazbeck|authorlink=Yvonne Haddad|last2=Moore|first2=Kathleen M.|last3=Smith|first3=Jane I.|title=Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today|date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-19-517783-5}}
• {{cite book|last1=Hessini|first1=Leila|editor1-last=Göçek|editor1-first=Fatma Müge|editor2-last=Balaghi|editor2-first=Shiva|title=Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity, and Power|chapter=Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and Identity|date=1994|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=0231101228}}
• {{cite book|last1=Joseph|first1=Suad|authorlink=Suad Joseph|last2=Najmabadi|first2=Afsaneh|authorlink2=Afsaneh Najmabadi|title=Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures.|date=2005|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9004128182}}
• {{cite book|last=Levy|first=Reuben|authorlink=Reuben Levy|title=The Social Structure of Islam | location = London | publisher=Routledge | year = 1999|isbn=0415209102}}

Further reading

Scripture

• Translations of the Qur'an, Chapter 4: Women

Books

• Andrea, Bernadette, Women and Islam in Early Modern English Literature, Cambridge University Press, 2008 (978-0-521-86764-1): Bernadette Andrea: Books
• Ahmed, Leila, Women and Gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate, Yale University Press, 1992
• Armstrong, Karen. The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, London, HarperCollins/Routledge, 2001
• Baffoun, Alya. Women and Social Change in the Muslim Arab World, In Women in Islam. Pergamon Press, 1982.
• Darwish, Nonie. The Terrifying Global Implications of Islamic Law, Thomas Nelson, 2008. {{ISBN|978-1-59555-161-0}}
• Esposito, John and Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad, Islam, Gender, and Social Change, Oxford University Press, 1997, {{ISBN|0-19-511357-8}}
• Hambly, Gavin. Women in the Medieval Islamic World, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, {{ISBN|0-312-22451-6}}
• Joseph, Suad (ed.) Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures. Leiden: Brill, Vol 1–4, 2003–2007.
• {{cite book| publisher = Lynne Rienner Publishers| isbn = 978-1-55587-442-1| last = Roded| first = Ruth| title = Women in Islamic biographical collections: from Ibn Saʻd to Who's Who| year = 1994}}

External links

{{Wikiquote}}

• [https://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson3/lesson3.php?s=0 George Mason University Archive, Islam – Women in World History, Roy Rosenzweig Center]
• Arab Studies Journal{{snd}}a peer reviewed publication that frequently covers topics relating to women in Islam.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20140310030248/http://www.brill.com/sites/default/files/ftp/downloads/EWIO_Preview_2012.pdf The Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures]{{snd}}Brill, The Netherlands.
• Oxford Islamic Studies Online{{snd}}numerous entries dealing with the role of women in Islamic societies.
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZmjGlJvRks Radio Interview with Dr. Nawal Ammar: An Ecofeminist Retrieval of a Forgotten Islam], University of Toronto, 21 September 2007.
• Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures: Family, Law and Politics, Editors: Joseph and Naǧmābādī, Brill, The Netherlands, {{ISBN|978-9004128187}}.

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