“Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, which coincided with the Middle Ages in Europe, is a period of Muslim rule in much of the Iberian Peninsula during which, intermittently, Jews were generally accepted in society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life flourished.

The nature and length of this "Golden Age" has been debated, as there were at least three periods during which non-Muslims were oppressed. A few scholars give the start of the Golden Age as 711–718, the Muslim conquest of Iberia. Others date it from 912, during the rule of Abd-ar-Rahman III. The end of the age is variously given as 1031, when the Caliphate of Cordoba ended; 1066, the date of the Granada massacre; 1090, when the Almoravids invaded; or the mid-12th century, when the Almohads invaded.

The nature of the Golden Age

Having invaded southern Spain, and coming to rule in a matter of seven years, Islamic rulers were confronted with many questions relating to the implementation of Islamic rule of a non-Islamic society. The coexistence of Muslims, Jews, and Christians during this time is revered by many writers. Al-Andalus was a key center of Jewish life during the early Middle Ages, producing important scholars and one of the most stable and wealthy Jewish communities and a relatively educated society for the Muslim occupiers and their Jewish collaborators, as well as some Christians who openly collaborated with the Muslims and Jews. As Sefarad, al-Andalus was the "capital" of world Judaism.

María Rosa Menocal, a specialist in Iberian literature at Yale University, claims that "tolerance was an inherent aspect of Andalusian society".^[1] Menocal's 2003 book, The Ornament of the World, argues that the Jewish dhimmis living under the Caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in the Christian parts of Europe. Jews from other parts of Europe made their way to al-Andalus, where in parallel to Christian sects regarded as heretical by Catholic Europe, they were not just tolerated, but where opportunities to practise faith and trades were open without restriction save for the prohibitions on proselytisation and, sometimes, on synagogue construction.

Bernard Lewis takes issue with this view, calling it ahistorical and exaggerated. He argues that Islam traditionally did not offer equality nor even pretend that it did, arguing that it would have been both a "theological as well as a logical absurdity."^[2] However, also Lewis states:

Birth of the Golden Age

Prior to 581, the Jews experienced a Golden Age under the Arian Visigoth occupiers of Spain.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} The Visigoths were mainly indifferent towards Jews and allowed them to grow and prosper. After the Visigoths joined the Catholic Church, they placed ever greater economic burdens on the Jewish population, and later persecuted them severely. It is possible that Jews welcomed the Muslim Arab and mainly Berber conquerors in the 8th century.

A period of tolerance dawned for the Jews of the Iberian Peninsula, whose number was considerably augmented by immigration from North Africa in the wake of the Muslim conquest.{{cn|date=April 2018}} North African Jewish immigrants and immigrants from the Middle East bolstered the Jewish population, and made Muslim Spain probably the biggest center of contemporary Jews. Especially after 912, during the reign of Abd-ar-Rahman III and his son, Al-Hakam II, the Jews prospered culturally, and some notable figures held high posts in the Caliphate of Cordoba. Jewish philosophers, mathematicians, astronomers, poets, and rabbinical scholars composed highly rich cultural and scientific work. Many devoted themselves to the study of the sciences and philosophy, composing many of the most valuable texts of Jewish Philosophy. Jews took part in the overall prosperity of Muslim Al-Andalus. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In Toledo after the Christian reconquest in 1085, Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the romance languages in the so-called Toledo School of Translators, as they had been previously in translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.^[5]

'Abd al-Rahman's court physician and minister was Hasdai ibn Shaprut, the patron of Menahem ben Saruq, Dunash ben Labrat, and other Jewish scholars and poets. In following centuries, Jewish thought flourished under famous figures such as Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol and Judah Halevi.^[5] During 'Abd al-Rahman's term of power, the scholar Moses ben Enoch was appointed rabbi of Córdoba, and as a consequence al-Andalus became the center of Talmudic study, and Córdoba the meeting-place of Jewish savants.

This was a time of partial Jewish autonomy. As "dhimmis", or "protected non-Muslims", Jews in the Islamic world paid the jizya, which was administered separately from the zakat paid by Muslims. The jizya has been viewed variously as a head tax, as payment for non-conscription in the military (as non-Muslims were normally prohibited from bearing arms or receiving martial training), or as a tribute. Jews had their own legal system and social services. Monotheist religions of the people of the book were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged.^[6]

Comparing the treatment of Jews in the medieval Islamic world and medieval Christian Europe, the Jews were far more integrated in the political and economic life of Islamic society,^[7] and usually faced far less violence from Muslims, though there were some instances of persecution in the Islamic world as well from the 11th century.^[8] The Islamic world classified Jews (and Christians) as dhimmi and allowed them to practice their religion more freely than they could do in Christian Europe.^[9]

Other authors criticize the modern notion of Al-Andalus being a tolerant society of equal opportunities for all religious groups as a "myth".^[10] Jews were living in an uneasy coexistence with Muslims and Catholics, and the relationship between these groups was more often than not marked by segregation and mutual hostility. In the 1066 Granada massacre of much of the Jewish population of the city, the Jewish death toll was higher than in the much publicized Christian pogromes in the Rhineland slightly later.^[10] The notable Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) was forced to flee from Al-Andalus to avoid conversion by the Almohads. In Letter to Yemen, Maimonides wrote:

End of the Golden Age

With the death of Al-Hakam II in 976, the Caliphate began to dissolve, and the position of the Jews became more precarious under the various smaller kingdoms.{{cn|date=August 2018}} The first major persecution was the 1066 Granada massacre, which occurred on 30 December, when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred many of the Jewish population of the city. According to one source, "more than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day."^[12] This was the first persecution of Jews on the Peninsula under Islamic rule.

Beginning in 1090, the situation deteriorated further with the invasion of the Almoravids, a puritan Muslim sect from Morocco. Even under the Almoravids, some Jews prospered (although far more so under Ali III, than under his father Yusuf ibn Tashfin). Among those who held the title of "vizier" or "nasi" in Almoravid times were the poet and physician Abu Ayyub Solomon ibn al-Mu'allam, Abraham ibn Meïr ibn Kamnial, Abu Isaac ibn Muhajar, and Solomon ibn Farusal. The Almoravids were ousted from the peninsula in 1148; however, the region was again invaded, this time by the even more puritanical Almohades.

During the reign of these Berber dynasties, many Jewish and even Muslim scholars left the Muslim-controlled portion of Iberia for the city of Toledo, which had been reconquered in 1085 by Christian forces.

The major Jewish presence in Iberia continued until the Jews were forced to leave or to convert to Christianity in the Alhambra decree of 1492 and a similar decree by Portugal in 1496.

Notable figures

See also

Notes

1. ^[https://web.archive.org/web/20050828225825/http://twbookmark.com/books/52/0316566888/press_release.html The Ornament of the World by María Rosa Menocal]
2. ^¹Lewis, Bernard W (1984). The Jews of Islam
3. ^¹{{cite book |last= Cohen |first= Mark R. |title= Under Crescent and Cross |publisher= Princeton University Press |date=October 1995 |isbn= 0-691-01082-X}}
4. ^{{cite journal |journal= The Jewish Quarterly Review |year=1997 |volume=88 |issue=1/2 |pages=76–78|doi=10.2307/1455066 |title= Review of Under Crescent and Cross. The Jews in the Middle Ages by Mark R. Cohen |author= Daniel J. Lasker}}
5. ^¹[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Sephardim.html Sephardim] by Rebecca Weiner.
6. ^Fred J. Hill et al., A History of the Islamic World 2003 {{ISBN|0-7818-1015-9}}, p.73
7. ^{{citation|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Mark R. Cohen|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-691-01082-X|pages=66–7 & 88|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross&source=bl&ots=3n9XnQiShQ&sig=LNPYLaAtXOFB_WS0tV9IuwsCRGY&hl=en&ei=ra6_S8ycOIb20wSNtsydCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-04-10}}
8. ^{{citation|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Mark R. Cohen|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-691-01082-X|pages=xvii, xix, 22, 163, 169|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross&source=bl&ots=3n9XnQiShQ&sig=LNPYLaAtXOFB_WS0tV9IuwsCRGY&hl=en&ei=ra6_S8ycOIb20wSNtsydCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-04-10}}
9. ^{{citation|title=Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages|author=Mark R. Cohen|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|isbn=0-691-01082-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgbib5exskUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=cohen+Under+Crescent+and+Cross&source=bl&ots=3n9XnQiShQ&sig=LNPYLaAtXOFB_WS0tV9IuwsCRGY&hl=en&ei=ra6_S8ycOIb20wSNtsydCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=2010-04-10}}
10. ^¹Darío Fernández-Morera: "The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise", The Intercollegiate Review, Fall 2006, pp. 23–31
11. ^Avraham Yaakov Finkel (translator): "Rambam: Selected Letters of Maimonides", Yeshivat Beit Moshe, Scranton, PA, 1994, {{ISBN|0-9626226-3-X}}, p. 58
12. ^Granada by Richard Gottheil, Meyer Kayserling, Jewish Encyclopedia. 1906 ed.