| 词条 | John Desmond Bernal |
| 释义 |
|name =John Desmond Bernal [1] | honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|size=100%|FRS}} |image =John Desmond Bernal.jpg |image_size =200px |caption = |birth_date ={{Birth date|1901|5|10|df=yes}} |birth_place =Nenagh, County Tipperary, Ireland |death_date ={{Death date and age|1971|9|15|1901|5|10|df=yes}} |death_place =London, England |resting_place =Battersea Cemetery, Morden (unmarked)[2] |residence =England |field =X-ray crystallography |work_institutions=Birkbeck College, University of London | education = Bedford School |alma_mater =University of Cambridge |doctoral_advisor =William Henry Bragg{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} |doctoral_students={{Plainlist|
|known_for =Bernal chart Bernal stacking Science politics |prizes =Royal Medal 1945, Guthrie lecture 1947, Stalin Peace Prize 1953, Grotius Gold Medal 1959, Bakerian Lecture 1962 Fellow of the Royal Society[4] }} John Desmond Bernal {{post-nominals|size=100%|FRS}}[4] ({{IPAc-en|b|ər|ˈ|n|ɑː|l}}; 10 May 1901 – 15 September 1971) was an Irish scientist who pioneered the use of X-ray crystallography in molecular biology. He published extensively on the history of science. In addition, Bernal was a political supporter of communism and wrote popular books on science and society. Education and early lifeHis family was Irish, of mixed Italian and Spanish/Portuguese[5] Sephardic Jewish origin on his father's side (his grandfather Jacob Genese, properly Ginesi, had adopted the family name Bernal of his paternal grandmother around 1837).[4] His father Samuel Bernal had been raised as a Catholic in Limerick and after graduating from Albert Agricultural College spent 14 years in Australia before returning to Tipperary to buy a farm, Brookwatson, near Nenagh where Bernal was brought up. His American mother, née Elizabeth Miller, whose mother was from Antrim, was a graduate of Stanford University and a journalist and had converted to Catholicism.[6][7] Bernal was educated in England, first for one term at Stonyhurst College which he hated. Because of this he was moved to Bedford School at the age of thirteen. There, according to Goldsmith, for five years from 1914 to 1919 he found it "extremely unpleasant" and most of his fellow students "bored him" though his younger brother Kevin who was also there was "some consolation"[8] and Brown claims "he seemed to adjust easily to life" there.[9] In 1919, he went to Emmanuel College, Cambridge with a scholarship.[10][11] At Cambridge, Bernal read both mathematics and science for a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1922, which he followed by another year of natural sciences. He taught himself the theory of space groups, including the quaternion method; this became the mathematical basis of a lengthy paper on crystal structure for which he won a joint prize with Ronald G.W. Norrish in his third year. Whilst at Cambridge, he also became known as "Sage", a nickname given to him about 1920 by a young woman working in Charles Kay Ogden's Bookshop at the corner of Bridge Street.[12] Career and researchAfter graduation, Bernal began research under William Henry Bragg at the Davy Faraday Laboratory at the Royal Institution[13] in London. In 1924 he determined the structure of graphite (the Bernal stacking describes the registry of two graphite planes) and also did work on the crystal structure of bronze.[13] His strength was in analysis as much as experimental method, and his mathematical and practical treatment of determining crystal structure was widely studied, though he also developed an X-ray spectro-goniometer.[14] In 1927, he was appointed as the first lecturer in Structural Crystallography at Cambridge, becoming the assistant director of the Cavendish Laboratory in 1934. Here he started applying his crystallographic techniques to organic molecules, starting with oestrin and sterol compounds including cholesterol in 1929, forcing a radical change of thinking among sterol chemists.[15] While at Cambridge, he analysed vitamin B1 (1933), pepsin (1934), vitamin D2 (1935), the sterols (1936), and the tobacco mosaic virus (1937).[13] He also worked on the structure of liquid water, showing the boomerang shape of its molecule (1933). It was in Bernal's research group where, following a year working with Tiny Powell at Oxford, Dorothy Hodgkin continued her early research career.[3] Together, in 1934, they took the first X-ray photographs of hydrated protein crystals using the trick of bathing the crystals in their mother liquor, giving one of the first glimpses of the world of molecular structure that underlies living things.[16] Max Perutz arrived as a student from Vienna in 1936 and started the work on haemoglobin that would occupy him most of his career. However, Bernal was refused fellowships at Emmanuel and Christ's and tenure by Ernest Rutherford, who disliked him,[17] and in 1937, Bernal became Professor of Physics at Birkbeck College, University of London, a department which had been brought to the first rank by Patrick Blackett. The same year he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society.[4] After World War II he established Birkbeck's Biomolecular Research Laboratory in two Georgian houses in Torrington Square with 15 researchers. Aaron Klug worked on ribonuclease whilst Andrew Booth developed some of the earliest computers to help with the computation. Rosalind Franklin joined from King's College and did pioneering work on viruses until her early death in 1957. His Guthrie lecture of 1947 concentrated on proteins as the basis of life, but it was Perutz, still at Cambridge, who picked up Linus Pauling's leads. In the early 1960s, Bernal returned to the subject of the origin of life — analysing meteorites for evidence of complex molecules — and to the topic of the structure of liquids, which he talked about in his Bakerian lecture in 1962.[18] Ministry of Home SecurityIn the early thirties Bernal had been arguing for peace, but the Spanish Civil War changed that. With the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Bernal joined the Ministry of Home Security, where he brought in Solly Zuckerman to carry out the first proper analyses of the effects of enemy bombing and of explosions on animals and people. Their subsequent analysis of the effects of bombs on Birmingham and Hull showed that city bombing produced little disruption and production was only affected by direct hits on factories. A supper of scientists in Soho generated a multi-author book Science in War produced in a month by Allen Lane, one of the guests, arguing that science should be applied in every part of the war effort.[19] From 1942 he and Zuckerman served as scientific advisers to Lord Louis Mountbatten, the Chief of Combined Operations.[13] Bernal was able to argue on both sides of Project Habbakuk, Pyke's proposal to build huge aircraft landing platforms in the North Atlantic made of ice. He rescued Max Perutz from internment, getting him to perform experiments on ice related to Habbakuk in a meat store freezer below Smithfield Meat Market.[20] This project indirectly marked his divergence from Zuckerman, when he was recalled from a joint tour of the Middle East investigating the cooperation of army and air force, although the tour established Zuckerman's reputation as a military scientist.[21] Operation Overlord and D-DayAfter the disaster of the Dieppe raid, Bernal was determined that these mistakes not be repeated in Operation Overlord. He demonstrated the advantages of an artificial harbour to the participants of the Quebec Conference in 1943, as the only British scientist present. But his main contribution to the Normandy landings was the detailed mapping of the beaches which had to be done without attracting any German attention.[22] His knowledge of the area stemmed from research in English libraries, personal experience (he had visited Arromanches on previous holidays) and aerial surveys.[23] At Bernal's memorial service, Zuckerman downplayed Bernal's part in the Normandy landings, saying he was not cleared for the highest levels of security.[24] Given Bernal's Marxist and pro-Soviet sympathies it is perhaps remarkable that there has never been any suggestion that he fed any information in that direction.[25] But Brown provides evidence[26][27] of Bernal's contributions to the preparation and the success of the invasion. After assisting in the preparations for D-Day with work on the structure of the proposed landing sites and the bocage countryside beyond, Bernal landed, according to C. P. Snow, at Normandy on the afternoon of D-Day+1 in the uniform of an Instructor-Lieutenant RN to record the effectiveness of the plans. He also assisted boats floundering on the rocks using his knowledge of the area but said: "I committed the frightful solecism of not knowing which was port and which side was starboard".[28] PublicationsHis 1929 work The World, the Flesh and the Devil has been called "the most brilliant attempt at scientific prediction ever made" by Arthur C. Clarke.[29] It is famous for having been the first to propose the so-called Bernal sphere, a type of space habitat intended for permanent residence. The second chapter explores radical changes to human bodies and intelligence and the third discusses the impact of these on society. In The Social Function of Science (1939) he argued that science was not an individual pursuit of abstract knowledge and that the support of research and development should be dramatically increased. Eugene Garfield, originator of the Science Citation Index, said "his idea of a centralized reprint center was in my thoughts when I first proposed the as yet nonexistent SCI in Science in 1955."[30] Science in History (1954) is a monumental four-volume attempt to analyse the interaction between science and society. The Origin of Life (1967) gives the current ideas from Oparin and Haldane onwards. Other publications include {{Div col|colwidth=35em}}
Political activismAlthough raised as a Catholic in his childhood, Bernal became a socialist in Cambridge as a result of a long night arguing with a friend. He also became an atheist.[32] According to one reviewer, "This conversion, as complete as St. Paul's on the road to Damascus, goes some way to account for, but not excuse, Bernal's blind allegiance for the rest of his life, to the Soviet Union."[33][34] He joined the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) in 1923.[35] His membership evidently lapsed when he returned to Cambridge in 1927 and was not renewed until 1933,[36] and he may have lost his card again shortly after this.[35] Bernal became a prominent intellectual in political life, particularly in the 1930s. He attended the famous 1931 meeting on the history of science, where he met the Soviets Nikolai Bukharin, and Boris Hessen who gave an influential Marxist account of the work of Isaac Newton. This meeting fundamentally changed his world-view and he maintained sympathy for the Soviet Union and Joseph Stalin. In 1939, Bernal published The Social Function of Science, probably the earliest text on the sociology of science. After World War II, although Bernal had been involved in evaluating the effects of atomic attacks against the Soviet Union,[36] he supported the World Congress of Intellectuals for Peace organised in communist Poland in 1948. Afterwards, he wrote a letter to the New Statesman warning that the US was preparing "a war for complete world domination".[37] Consequently, when Bernal was invited to a world peace conference in New York in February 1949, his visa was refused. But he was allowed into France in April for the World Congress of the Partisans of Peace, with Frédéric Joliot-Curie as president and Bernal as vice-president. The following year the organisation changed its name to the World Peace Council. On 20 September 1949, after his return from giving a speech strongly critical of western countries at a peace conference in Moscow, the Evening Star newspaper of Ipswich published an interview with Bernal in which he endorsed Soviet agriculture, the "proletarian science" of Trofim Lysenko.[23] The Lysenko affair had erupted in August 1948 when Stalin authorised Lysenko's theory of plant genetics as official Soviet orthodoxy, and refused any deviation. Bernal and the whole British scientific left were damaged by his support for Lysenko's theory, even after many scientists abandoned their sympathy for the Soviet Union. Under pressure from the burgeoning Cold War, the president of British Royal Society had resigned from the Soviet Academy of Sciences in November 1948.[38] In November 1949, the British Association for the Advancement of Science removed Bernal from membership of its council.[39] Membership in UK radical science groups quickly declined. Unlike some of his socialist colleagues, Bernal persisted in defending the Soviet position on Lysenko. He publicly refused to accept the gaping fissures that the dispute revealed between the study of natural science and dialectical materialism.[40] In November 1950, Pablo Picasso, a fellow communist, en route to a Soviet-sponsored[41] World Peace Congress in Sheffield created a mural in Bernal's flat at the top of No. 22 Torrington Square.[42] In 2007 this became part of the Wellcome Trust's collection[43][44] for £250,000. Throughout the 1950s, Bernal maintained a faith in the Soviet Union as a vehicle for the creation of a socialist scientific utopia. In 1953 he was awarded the Stalin Peace Prize.[45] From 1959 to 1965 he was president of the World Peace Council. Awards and honoursBernal was awarded the Royal Medal in 1945 [46], the Guthrie lecture in 1947,[47][48] the Stalin Peace Prize in 1953, [45] the Grotius Gold Medal in 1959 [34] and the Bakerian Lecture in 1962.[18][49] Bernal was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1937. [4] A fictional portrait of Bernal appears in the novel The Search, an early work of his friend C. P. Snow. He was also said{{by whom|date=October 2018}} to be the inspiration for the character Tengal in The Holiday by Stevie Smith. The Bernal Lecture and its successor the Wilkins-Bernal-Medawar Lecture Medal and Lecture were named in his honour. [48] LegacyThe Bernal Building at the University of Limerick wwas named in his honour. Personal lifeBernal had two children (Mike, 1926–2016 and Egan, b.1930)[2] with his wife Agnes Eileen Sprague (referred to as Eileen),[66] who was a secretary. He married Sprague on 21 June 1922, the day after having been awarded his BA degree. Bernal was 21, Sprague 23. Sprague was described as an active socialist and their marriage as 'open' which they both lived up to 'with great gusto'.[50] In the early 1930s he had a brief intimate relationship with chemist Dorothy Hodgkin, whose scientific research work he mentored.[3][51] He had a long-term relationship with the artist Margaret Gardiner. Their son Martin Bernal (1937–2013)[52] was a professor in the Department of Government at Cornell University and author of the controversial Afrocentric work Black Athena.[53][54] Margaret referred to herself as "Mrs. Bernal", though the two never married. Eileen is mentioned as his widow in 1990.[55] He also had a child (Jane, b.1953) with Margot Heinemann.[2] References1. ^Images of Bernal at the National Portrait Gallery 2. ^1 2 {{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=238}} 3. ^1 2 {{cite thesis|degree=PhD|url=http://ulmss-newton.lib.cam.ac.uk/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=35884|title=X-ray crystallography and the chemistry of the sterols|first=Dorothy Mary Crowfoot|last=Hodgkin|website=lib.cam.ac.uk|publisher=University of Cambridge|year=1937|id={{EThOS|uk.bl.ethos.727110}}}} 4. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite journal | last1=Hodgkin | first1=D. M. C. | authorlink=Dorothy Hodgkin| doi=10.1098/rsbm.1980.0002 | title=John Desmond Bernal. 10 May 1901-15 September 1971 | journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society | volume=26 | pages=16–84 | year=1980 | pmid= | pmc=}} 5. ^Bevis Marks Records, Vols 1–6 of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish Congregation, London; Miriam Rodrigues Pereira, ed. 6. ^{{cite book |author=Brown, Andrew |title=J. D. Bernal: the sage of science |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=0-19-851544-8 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} 7. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=1–3}} 8. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=24}} 9. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=9}} 10. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=26}} 11. ^{{cite book|last=Boylan|first= Henry |year=1998|title=A Dictionary of Irish Biography, 3rd Edition|pages=25|location=Dublin|publisher= Gill and MacMillan|isbn= 0-7171-2945-4}} 12. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=27}} 13. ^1 2 3 {{cite book |last= |first= |year=1999 |title=A Dictionary of Scientists |pages= |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-280086-8 |author=editors, John Dintih, Derek Gjertsen}} 14. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=55,61}} 15. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=94}} Goldsmith reports Zuckerman and Crowther were surprised Bernal was not awarded a Nobel for this, as it corrected the structure for which the 1928 award had been made. 16. ^Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 17. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=90,146,187}} 18. ^1 The structure of liquids. Bakerian Lecture. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 280, 299-322. 19. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=198–9, 176}} 20. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=215–20,235–7}} 21. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=222–4}} 22. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=238–247}} 23. ^1 {{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|pp=105–108}} 24. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|pp=477–484}} 25. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=184}} 26. ^{{Cite journal | author=de Charadevian, Soraya, Dept of History and Philosophy of Science, Cambridge | title=Advocating Science for the People — review of Andrew Brown's book | year=2006 | publisher=Science 12 May 2006 Vol 312, no 5775| pages=849–850 | ref=harv}} 27. ^{{cite news |title=Solly Zuckerman and J D Bernal, Times review by Christopher Coker of both Andrew Brown's biography of Bernal and Bernard Donovan's biography of Zukerman, 8 February 2006 |url=http://tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25350-2030656,00.html |accessdate=7 November 2008 |location=London |work=The Times |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621171931/http://tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0%2C%2C25350-2030656%2C00.html |archivedate=21 June 2008 |df= }} 28. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|pp=102–112}} 29. ^{{cite book|last=Clarke|first=Arthur C.|title=Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds|publisher=St Martin's Griffin, New York|year=2000}} cited in {{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=70}} 30. ^{{Cite web |author=Eugene Garfield |title=Tracing the Influence of JD Bernal on the World of Science through Citation Analysis |url=http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/papers/bernaldublin0907.pdf |accessdate=2011-03-10 |ref=harv}} 31. ^{{cite book | first1=Robert | last1=Scholes| authorlink1= Robert Scholes| first2=Eric S.| last2=Rabkin|title=Science Fiction: History, Science, Vision| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=London|date=1977|chapter=Bibliography III: Science Backgrounds}} 32. ^{{cite book |title=Biology: Decade by Decade |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438109770 |page=85 |author=Haugen, Peter |chapter=4: 1931-1940|quote=Although a devout Catholic in his boyhood, he became an outspoken atheist, socialist, and sometime Communist Party member...}} 33. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.fasebj.org/content/21/2/302.full.pdf |title=J.D. Bernal: The Sage of Science |author=Jan A. Witkowski |accessdate=2011-03-01 |ref=harv}} 34. ^1 {{Cite journal | last1=Witkowski | first1=J. A. | title=J. D. Bernal: The Sage of Science by Andrew Brown (2006), Oxford University Press | doi=10.1096/fj.07-0202ufm | journal=The FASEB Journal | volume=21 | issue=2 | pages=302–304 | year=2007 | pmid= | pmc=}} 35. ^1 {{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=31}} 36. ^1 {{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=269}} 37. ^{{Cite journal |publisher=New Statesman |title=Letter |volume=XXXVI |pages=238–239 |author=J.D. Bernal |date=18 September 1948|ref=harv}} quoted in {{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=325}} 38. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=304}} 39. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|pp=182 et seq}} 40. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|pp=189 et seq}} 41. ^Eric Hobsbawm, Interesting Times, p. 181 42. ^{{harvnb|Goldsmith|1980|p=picture}} 43. ^The night that Picasso was a little plastered, The Times, 2 April 2007. 44. ^Bernal's Picasso goes on show in London at Wellcome Collection, Culture24, UK, 14 January 2008. 45. ^1 {{cite book|title=Yearbook of the Great Soviet Encyclopedia|year=1959|publisher=Sovetskaya Enciklopediya |location=Moscow |language=Russian}} 46. ^{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925080312/https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/royal-medal/|archivedate=2015-09-25|url=https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/royal-medal/|title=Royal Medals|publisher=Royal Society|location=London}} 47. ^The physical basis of life. (The Guthrie Lecture of the Physical Society.) Proc. phys. Soc. Lond. A 62 , 357. Also published (1951) Routledge & Kegan Paul. 48. ^1 https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/wilkins-bernal-medawar/ 49. ^https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rsbm.1980.0002 50. ^{{Cite journal | last1=Brown | first1=A. P. | doi=10.1088/1742-6596/57/1/006 | title=J D Bernal: The sage of science | journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series | volume=57 | pages=61–72 | year=2007 | pmid= | pmc=}} 51. ^{{harvnb|Brown|2005|p=139}} 52. ^Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry for Margaret Gardiner 53. ^{{cite news |title=Margaret Gardiner, obituary in The Guardian, 5 January 2005|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/jan/05/guardianobituaries.artsobituaries | date=5 January 2005 |first=Janet |last=Morgan}} 54. ^{{cite web |title=Margaret Gardiner, obituary by Nchima Trust |url=http://www.nchimatrust.org/charity/Home/MargeretGardiner/tabid/85/Default.aspx |accessdate=2011-02-28}} 55. ^1 Brief biography of Bernal at the National Portrait Gallery, London Sources
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36 : 20th-century Irish people|1901 births|1971 deaths|People from County Westmeath|Academics of Birkbeck, University of London|Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|British biophysicists|British former Christians|British atheists|British inventors|Irish emigrants to the United Kingdom|British people of Italian-Jewish descent|British people of Portuguese-Jewish descent|British people of Spanish-Jewish descent|British physicists|Communist Party of Great Britain members|Crystallographers|Fellows of the Royal Society|Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences|Former Roman Catholics|Historians of science|Jewish socialists|People educated at Bedford School|People educated at Stonyhurst College|People from Nenagh|Space colonization|Stalin Peace Prize recipients|X-ray crystallography|British communists|World Peace Council|20th-century historians|Irish people of Italian descent|Irish people of Portuguese descent|Irish people of Spanish descent|Irish people of Jewish descent|Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin |
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