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词条 Picinae
释义

  1. Physiology and behaviour

  2. Systematics

      Unassigned fossil forms  Species 

  3. References

  4. External links

{{automatic taxobox
| name = Woodpeckers
| image =Melanerpes striatus001, crop.jpg
| image_caption = Hispaniolan woodpecker
| taxon = Picinae
| authority = Bonaparte 1838
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =

Several, see text.


}}

Woodpeckers are near passerine birds of the order Piciformes. They are one subfamily in the family Picidae, which also includes the piculets and wrynecks. They are found worldwide.

Woodpeckers gained their English name because of the habit of some species of tapping and pecking noisily on tree trunks with their beaks and heads. This is both a means of communication to signal possession of territory to their rivals, and a method of locating and accessing insect larvae found under the bark or in long winding tunnels in the tree or upright log.

Physiology and behaviour

Some woodpeckers and wrynecks in the order Piciformes have zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward, and two backward. These feet, though adapted for clinging to a vertical surface, can be used for grasping or perching. Several species have only three toes. The woodpecker's long tongue, in many cases as long as the woodpecker itself, can be darted forward to capture insects. The tongue is not attached to the woodpecker's head in the same way as it is in most birds, but instead it curls back up around its skull, which allows it to be so long.

The woodpecker first locates a tunnel by tapping on the trunk with its head. Once a tunnel is found, the woodpecker chisels out wood until it makes an opening into the tunnel. Then it worms its tongue into the tunnel to try to locate the grub. The tongue of the woodpecker is long and ends in a barb. With its tongue the woodpecker skewers the grub and draws it out of the trunk.

Woodpeckers also use their beaks to create larger holes for their nests which are 15–45 cm (6–18 inches) below the opening. These nests are lined only with wood chips and hold 2–8 white eggs. Because the nests are out of sight, they are not visible to predators and eggs do not need to be camouflaged. Cavities created by woodpeckers are also reused as nests by other birds, such as grackles, starlings, some ducks and owls, and mammals, such as tree squirrels.

Several adaptations combine to protect the woodpecker's brain from the substantial pounding that the pecking behaviour causes: it has a relatively thick skull with relatively spongy bone to cushion the brain; there is very little cerebrospinal fluid in its small subarachnoid space; the bird contracts mandibular muscles just before impact, thus transmitting the impact past the brain and allowing its whole body to help absorb the shock; its relatively small brain is less prone to concussion than other animals'.[1]

Some species have modified joints between bones in the skull and upper jaw, as well as muscles which contract to absorb the shock of the hammering. Strong neck and tail-feather muscles, and a chisel-like bill are other hammering adaptations which are seen in most species. Other species of woodpecker, such as the Flicker, uses its long tongue primarily to grab prey from the ground or from under loose bark. It has few shock-absorbing adaptations, and prefers to feed on the ground or to chip away at rotting wood and bark, habits observed in birds outside of the woodpecker family. A "continuum" in skull structures, from little- to highly specialized for pounding is seen in different genera (groups of related species) of woodpeckers alive today. In his classic "Birds of America," John James Audubon describes the slight gradations in hyoid horn length found in different species of living woodpeckers. The slack of tongue is kept under the loose skin behind its neck. The tiny bones divide into essentially two tongues, coming back together before entering the beak.

Systematics

The systematics of woodpeckers is quite convoluted. Based on an assumption of unrealistically low convergence in details of plumage and behavior, 5 subfamilies were distinguished. However, it has turned out that similar plumage patterns and modes of life are not reliable to determine higher phylogenetic relationships in woodpeckers, and thus only 3 subfamilies should be accepted.

For example, the genera Dryocopus (Eurasia and Americas) and Campephilus (Americas) of large woodpeckers were believed to form a distinct group. However, they are quite unrelated and instead close to a Southeast Asian genus, Mulleripicus and Chrysocolaptes, respectively. In addition, the genus allocation of many species, e.g. the rufous woodpecker, has turned out to be in error, and some taxa with unclear relationships could be placed into the phylogeny.[2][3]

Unassigned fossil forms

  • Genus Palaeonerpes (Ogallala Early Pliocene of Hitchcock County, USA) - possibly dendropicine
  • Genus Pliopicus (Early Pliocene of Kansas, USA) - possibly dendropicine
  • cf. Colaptes DMNH 1262 (Early Pliocene of Ainsworth, USA) - possibly malarpicine

Species

This is a list of woodpecker species:

Tribe Dendropicini
  • Genus Melanerpes
    • White woodpecker, Melanerpes candidus
    • Lewis's woodpecker, Melanerpes lewis
    • Guadeloupe woodpecker, Melanerpes herminieri
    • Puerto Rican woodpecker, Melanerpes portoricensis
    • Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus
    • Acorn woodpecker, Melanerpes formicivorus
    • Yellow-tufted woodpecker, Melanerpes cruentatus
    • Yellow-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes flavifrons
    • Golden-naped woodpecker, Melanerpes chrysauchen
    • Beautiful woodpecker, Melanerpes pulcher
    • Black-cheeked woodpecker, Melanerpes pucherani
    • White-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes cactorum
    • Hispaniolan woodpecker, Melanerpes striatus
    • Jamaican woodpecker, Melanerpes radiolatus
    • Golden-cheeked woodpecker, Melanerpes chrysogenys
    • Grey-breasted woodpecker, Melanerpes hypopolius
    • Yucatan woodpecker, Melanerpes pygmaeus
    • Red-crowned woodpecker, Melanerpes rubricapillus
    • Gila woodpecker, Melanerpes uropygialis
    • Hoffmann's woodpecker, Melanerpes hoffmannii
    • Golden-fronted woodpecker, Melanerpes aurifrons
    • Velasquez's woodpecker, Melanerpes santacruzi
    • Red-bellied woodpecker, Melanerpes carolinus
    • West Indian woodpecker, Melanerpes superciliaris
  • Genus Sphyrapicus
    • Williamson's sapsucker, Sphyrapicus thyroideus
    • Yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius
    • Red-naped sapsucker, Sphyrapicus nuchalis
    • Red-breasted sapsucker, Sphyrapicus ruber
  • Genus Xiphidiopicus
    • Cuban green woodpecker, Xiphidiopicus percussus (Placement in Dendropicini tentative)
  • Genus Dendropicos
    • Little grey woodpecker, Dendropicos elachus
    • Speckle-breasted woodpecker, Dendropicos poecilolaemus
    • Abyssinian woodpecker, Dendropicos abyssinicus
    • Cardinal woodpecker, Dendropicos fuscescens
    • Gabon woodpecker, Dendropicos gabonensis
    • Melancholy woodpecker, Dendropicos lugubris
    • Stierling's woodpecker, Dendropicos stierlingi
    • Elliot's woodpecker, Dendropicos elliotii
    • African grey woodpecker, Dendropicos goertae
    • Eastern grey woodpecker, Dendropicos spodocephalus
    • Olive woodpecker, Dendropicos griseocephalus
    • Brown-backed woodpecker, Dendropicos obsoletus
  • Genus Chloropicus
    • Bearded woodpecker, Chloropicus namaquus
    • Fire-bellied woodpecker, Chloropicus pyrrhogaster
    • Yellow-crested woodpecker, Chloropicus xantholophus
  • Genus Yungipicus
    • Sulawesi pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus temminckii
    • Philippine pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus maculatus
    • Brown-capped pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus nanus
    • Sunda pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus moluccensis
    • Sulu pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus ramsayi
    • Grey-capped pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus canicapillus
    • Doerries's pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus canicapillus doerriesi
    • Japanese pygmy woodpecker, Yungipicus kizuki
  • Genus Dendrocoptes
    • Brown-fronted woodpecker, Dendrocoptes auriceps
    • Arabian woodpecker, Dendrocoptes dorae
    • Middle spotted woodpecker, Dendrocoptes medius
  • Genus Dendrocopos
    • Fulvous-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos macei
    • Stripe-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos atratus
    • Freckle-breasted woodpecker, Dendrocopos analis
    • Rufous-bellied woodpecker, Dendrocopos hyperythrus
    • Darjeeling woodpecker, Dendrocopos darjellensis
    • White-backed woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucotos
    • Great spotted woodpecker, Dendrocopos major
    • Syrian woodpecker, Dendrocopos syriacus
    • White-winged woodpecker, Dendrocopos leucopterus
    • Amami woodpecker, Dendrocopos owstoni
    • Sind woodpecker, Dendrocopos assimilis
    • Himalayan woodpecker, Dendrocopos himalayensis
    • Okinawa woodpecker, Dendrocopos noguchii
  • Genus Leiopicus
    • Yellow-crowned woodpecker, Leiopicus mahrattensis
  • Genus Dryobates
    • Lesser spotted woodpecker, Dryobates minor
    • Downy woodpecker, Dryobates pubescens
    • Nuttall's woodpecker, Dryobates nuttallii
    • Ladder-backed woodpecker, Dryobates scalaris
    • Crimson-breasted woodpecker, Dryobates cathpharius
  • Genus Leuconotopicus
    • Red-cockaded woodpecker, Leuconotopicus borealis
    • Smoky-brown woodpecker, Leuconotopicus fumigatus
    • Hairy woodpecker, Leuconotopicus villosus
    • White-headed woodpecker, Leuconotopicus albolarvatus
    • Strickland's woodpecker, Leuconotopicus stricklandi
    • Arizona woodpecker, Leuconotopicus arizonae
  • Genus Picoides
    • Eurasian three-toed woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus
    • Dark-bodied woodpecker, Picoides tridactylus funebris
    • American three-toed woodpecker, Picoides dorsalis
    • Black-backed woodpecker, Picoides arcticus
  • Genus Veniliornis
    • Red-rumped woodpecker, Veniliornis kirkii
    • Golden-collared woodpecker, Veniliornis cassini
    • Chocó woodpecker, Veniliornis chocoensis
    • Yellow-eared woodpecker, Veniliornis maculifrons
    • Red-stained woodpecker, Veniliornis affinis
    • Bar-bellied woodpecker, Veniliornis nigriceps
    • Scarlet-backed woodpecker, Veniliornis callonotus
    • Yellow-vented woodpecker, Veniliornis dignus
    • Little woodpecker, Veniliornis passerinus
    • Dot-fronted woodpecker, Veniliornis frontalis
    • Blood-colored woodpecker, Veniliornis sanguineus
    • White-spotted woodpecker, Veniliornis spilogaster
    • Striped woodpecker, Veniliornis lignarius
    • Checkered woodpecker, Veniliornis mixtus
Tribe Malarpicini
  • Genus Campethera
    • Fine-spotted woodpecker, Campethera punctuligera
    • Nubian woodpecker, Campethera nubica
    • Bennett's woodpecker, Campethera bennettii
    • Speckle-throated woodpecker, Campethera scriptoricauda
    • Golden-tailed woodpecker, Campethera abingoni
    • Mombasa woodpecker, Campethera mombassica
    • Knysna woodpecker, Campethera notata
    • Little green woodpecker, Campethera maculosa
    • Green-backed woodpecker, Campethera cailliautii
    • Tullberg's woodpecker, Campethera tullbergi
    • Buff-spotted woodpecker, Campethera nivosa
    • Brown-eared woodpecker, Campethera caroli
  • Genus Geocolaptes
    • Ground woodpecker, Geocolaptes olivaceus
  • Genus Dinopium
    • Olive-backed woodpecker, Dinopium rafflesii
    • Himalayan flameback, Dinopium shorii
    • Common flameback, Dinopium javanense
    • Spot-throated flameback, Dinopium everetti
    • Black-rumped flameback, Dinopium benghalense
    • Red-backed flameback, Dinopium psarodes
  • Genus Meiglyptes
    • White-rumped woodpecker, Meiglyptes tristis
    • Buff-rumped woodpecker, Meiglyptes grammithorax
    • Black-and-buff woodpecker, Meiglyptes jugularis
    • Buff-necked woodpecker, Meiglyptes tukki
  • Genus Hemicircus (Placement in Malarpicini tentative)
    • Grey-and-buff woodpecker, Hemicircus sordidus
    • Red-crested woodpecker, Hemicircus concretus
    • Heart-spotted woodpecker, Hemicircus canente
  • Genus Micropternus (formerly in Celeus)
    • Rufous woodpecker, Micropternus brachyurus

Tribe Picini{{anchor|Tribe Picini}}

  • Genus Chrysophlegma
    • Banded woodpecker, Chrysophlegma mineaceum
    • Checker-throated woodpecker, Chrysophlegma mentale
    • Greater yellownape, Chrysophlegma flavinucha
  • Genus Picus
    • Lesser yellownape, Picus chlorolophus
    • Crimson-winged woodpecker, Picus puniceus
    • Streak-breasted woodpecker, Picus viridanus
    • Laced woodpecker, Picus vittatus
    • Streak-throated woodpecker, Picus xanthopygaeus
    • Scaly-bellied woodpecker, Picus squamatus
    • Japanese green woodpecker, Picus awokera
    • European green woodpecker, Picus viridis
    • Iberian green woodpecker, Picus sharpei
    • Levaillant's woodpecker, Picus vaillantii
    • Red-collared woodpecker, Picus rabieri
    • Black-headed woodpecker, Picus erythropygius
    • Grey-headed woodpecker, Picus canus
    • Sumatran woodpecker, Picus dedemi
    • Black-naped woodpecker, Picus guerini
  • Genus Mulleripicus
    • Ashy woodpecker, Mulleripicus fulvus
    • Northern sooty woodpecker, Mulleripicus funebris
    • Southern sooty woodpecker, Mulleripicus fulginosus
    • Great slaty woodpecker, Mulleripicus pulverulentus
  • Genus Dryocopus
    • Lineated woodpecker, Dryocopus lineatus
    • Pileated woodpecker, Dryocopus pileatus
    • Black-bodied woodpecker, Dryocopus schulzii
    • White-bellied woodpecker, Dryocopus javensis
    • Andaman woodpecker, Dryocopus hodgei
    • Black woodpecker, Dryocopus martius
  • Genus Celeus
    • Helmeted woodpecker, Celeus galeatus
    • Cinnamon woodpecker, Celeus loricatus
    • Scaly-breasted woodpecker, Celeus grammicus
    • Waved woodpecker, Celeus undatus
    • Chestnut-colored woodpecker, Celeus castaneus
    • Chestnut woodpecker, Celeus elegans
    • Pale-crested woodpecker, Celeus lugubris
    • Blond-crested woodpecker, Celeus flavescens
    • Ochre-backed woodpecker, Celeus ochraceus
    • Cream-colored woodpecker, Celeus flavus
    • Rufous-headed woodpecker, Celeus spectabilis
    • Kaempfer's woodpecker, Celeus obrieni
    • Ringed woodpecker, Celeus torquatus
    • Amazonian black-breasted woodpecker, Celeus occidentalis
    • Atlantic black-breasted woodpecker, Celeus tinnunculus
  • Genus Piculus
    • Rufous-winged woodpecker, Piculus simplex
    • Stripe-cheeked woodpecker, Piculus callopterus
    • Lita woodpecker, Piculus litae
    • White-throated woodpecker, Piculus leucolaemus
    • Yellow-throated woodpecker, Piculus flavigula
    • Golden-green woodpecker, Piculus chrysochloros
    • Yellow-browed woodpecker, Piculus aurulentus
  • Genus Colaptes
    • Golden-olive woodpecker, Colaptes rubiginosus
    • Grey-crowned woodpecker, Colaptes auricularis
    • Crimson-mantled woodpecker, Colaptes rivolii
    • Black-necked woodpecker, Colaptes atricollis
    • Black-crowned woodpecker, Colaptes atriceps
    • Spot-breasted woodpecker, Colaptes punctigula
    • Green-barred woodpecker, Colaptes melanochloros
    • Golden-breasted woodpecker, Colaptes melanolaimus
    • Bronze-winged woodpecker, Colaptes aeruginosus
    • Northern flicker, Colaptes auratus
    • Yellow-shafted Flicker, Colaptes (auratus) auratus
    • Red-shafted Flicker, Colaptes (auratus) cafer
    • Guadalupe Flicker, Colaptes auratus/cafer rufipileus - extinct (c.1910)
    • Guatemalan flicker, Colaptes auratus mexicanoides
    • Bermuda flicker, Colaptes oceanicus - extinct (may have survived to 19th century)
    • Gilded flicker, Colaptes chrysoides
    • Fernandina's flicker, Colaptes fernandinae
    • Chilean flicker, Colaptes pitius
    • Andean flicker, Colaptes rupicola
    • Campo flicker, Colaptes campestris
    • Pampas flicker, Colaptes campestris campestroides
Tribe Megapicini
  • Genus Campephilus
    • Powerful woodpecker, Campephilus pollens
    • Crimson-bellied woodpecker, Campephilus haematogaster
    • Splendid woodpecker, Campephilus haematogaster splendens
    • Red-necked woodpecker, Campephilus rubricollis
    • Robust woodpecker, Campephilus robustus
    • Crimson-crested woodpecker, Campephilus melanoleucos
    • Guayaquil woodpecker, Campephilus gayaquilensis
    • Pale-billed woodpecker, Campephilus guatemalensis
    • Cream-backed woodpecker, Campephilus leucopogon
    • Magellanic woodpecker, Campephilus magellanicus
    • Ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus principalis (possibly extinct)
    • Cuban ivory-billed woodpecker, Campephilus (principalis) bairdii - extinct (late 20th century)
    • Imperial woodpecker, Campephilus imperialis (possibly extinct)
  • Genus Chrysocolaptes
    • White-naped woodpecker, Chrysocolaptes festivus
    • Greater flameback, Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus
    • Crimson-backed flameback, Chrysocolaptes stricklandi
    • Javan flameback, Chrysocolaptes strictus
    • Luzon flameback, Chrysocolaptes haematribon
    • Yellow-faced flameback, Chrysocolaptes xanthocephalus
    • Buff-spotted flameback, Chrysocolaptes lucidus
    • Red-headed flameback, Chrysocolaptes erythrocephalus
  • Genus Reinwardtipicus
    • Orange-backed woodpecker, Reinwardtipicus validus
  • Genus Blythipicus
    • Maroon woodpecker, Blythipicus rubiginosus
    • Bay woodpecker, Blythipicus pyrrhotis
  • Genus Gecinulus (Placement in Megapicini tentative)
    • Pale-headed woodpecker, Gecinulus grantia
    • Bamboo woodpecker, Gecinulus viridis

References

1. ^Cure for a headache, Ivan R. Schwab, British Journal of Ophthalmology. 86(8):843, August 2002.
2. ^{{cite journal | last1=Benz | first1=B.W. | last2=Robbins | first2=M.B. | last3=Peterson | first3=A.T. | year=2006 | title=Evolutionary history of woodpeckers and allies (Aves: Picidae): Placing key taxa on the phylogenetic tree | journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=389–399 | doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.021 }}
3. ^{{ cite journal | last1=Moore | first1=W.S. | last2=Weibel | first2=A.C. | last3=Aguis | first3=A. | year=2006 | title=DNA phylogeny of the woodpecker genus Veniliornis (Picidae, Picinae) and related genera implies convergent evolution of plumage patterns | journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume=87 | issue=4 | pages=611–624 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00586.x }}

External links

{{Commons category|Picidae}}
  • Woodpecker videos on the Internet Bird Collection
  • Anatomy and Evolution of the Woodpecker's Tongue
{{Taxonbar|from=Q561145}}PegoSpechtenPica-pauДятловыеWoodpeckerAğaçkakan

2 : Picinae|Picidae
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