“Saraswati”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic period through modern times of Hindu traditions.^[5] Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring, and also known as Saraswati Puja and Saraswati Jayanti in so many parts of India) in her honour,^[4] and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write the letters of the alphabet on that day.^[5] The Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India,^[6] as well as some Buddhist sects.^[7]

Etymology

Saraswati, is a Sanskrit fusion word of saras (सरस्) meaning "pooling water", but also sometimes translated as "speech"; and vati (वती) meaning "she who possesses" (also found in the name of Parvati, "She who has wings"). Originally associated with the river or rivers known as Saraswati, this combination therefore means "she who has ponds, lakes, and pooling water" or occasionally "she who possesses speech". It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati (सुरस-वति) which means "one with plenty of water".^[8]^[9]

The word Saraswati appears both as a reference to a river and as a significant deity in the Rigveda. In initial passages, the word refers to the Sarasvati River and is mentioned as one among several northwestern Indian rivers such as the Drishadvati. Saraswati, then, connotes a river deity. In Book 2, the Rigveda describes Saraswati as the best of mothers, of rivers, of goddesses.^[9]

Saraswati is celebrated as a feminine deity with healing and purifying powers of abundant, flowing waters in Book 10 of the Rigveda, as follows:

In Vedic literature, Saraswati acquires the same significance for early Indians (states John Muir) as that accredited to the river Ganges by their modern descendants. In hymns of Book 10 of Rigveda, she is already declared to be the "possessor of knowledge".^[12] Her importance grows in Vedas composed after Rigveda and in Brahmanas, and the word evolves in its meaning from "waters that purify", to "that which purifies", to "vach (speech) that purifies", to "knowledge that purifies", and ultimately into a spiritual concept of a goddess that embodies knowledge, arts, music, melody, muse, language, rhetoric, eloquence, creative work and anything whose flow purifies the essence and self of a person.^[9]^[13] In Upanishads and Dharma Sastras, Saraswati is invoked to remind the reader to meditate on virtue, virtuous emoluments, the meaning and the very essence of one's activity, one's action.

Saraswati is known by many names in ancient Hindu literature. Some examples of synonyms for Saraswati include Brahmani (power of Brahma), Brahmi (goddess of sciences),^[14] Bharadi (goddess of history), Vani and Vachi (both referring to the flow of music/song, melodious speech, eloquent speaking respectively), Varnesvari (goddess of letters), Kavijihvagravasini (one who dwells on the tongue of poets).^[2]^[15] Goddess Saraswati is also known as Vidyadatri (Goddess who provides knowledge), Veenavadini (Goddess who plays veena, the musical instrument held by Goddess Saraswati), Pustakdharini (Goddess carrying book with herself), Veenapani (Goddess carrying veena in her hands), Hansavahini (Goddess who sits on swan) and Vagdevi (Goddess of speech).

Nomenclature

In the Hindi language, her name is written {{lang-hi|सरस्वती}}. In the Telugu, Sarasvati is also known as Chaduvula Thalli (చదువుల తల్లి) and Shārada (శారద). In Konkani, she is referred to as Shārada, Veenapani, Pustakadhārini, Vidyadāyini. In Kannada, variants of her name include Sharade, Sharadamba, Vāni, Veenapani in the famous Sringeri temple. In Tamil, she is also known as Kalaimagal (கலைமகள்), Kalaivāni (கலைவாணி), Vāni (வாணி) and Bharathi. She is also addressed as Sāradā (the one who offers sāra or the essence), Shāradā (the one who loves the autumn season), Veenā-pustaka-dhārini (the one holding books and a Veena), Vāgdevi, Vāgishvari, (both meaning "goddess of speech"), Vāni (speech), Varadhanāyaki (the one bestowing boons), Sāvitri (consort of Brahma), Gāyatri (mother of Vedas).{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

In India, she is locally spelled as Assamese_language:সৰস্বতী,Saraswati, {{indic|lang=bn|indic=সরস্বতী|trans=Saraswati}}, {{indic|lang=ml|indic=സരസ്വതി|trans=Saraswati}}, and {{indic|lang=ta|indic=சரஸ்வதி|trans=Sarasvatī}}.

Outside Nepal and India, she is known in Burmese as Thurathadi ({{my|သူရဿတီ}}, {{IPA-my|θùja̰ðədì|pron}} or {{IPA-my|θùɹa̰ðədì|}}) or Tipitaka Medaw ({{my|တိပိဋကမယ်တော်}}, {{IPA-my|tḭpḭtəka̰ mɛ̀dɔ̀|pron}}), in Chinese as {{lang|pny|Biàncáitiān}} ({{lang|zh|辯才天}}), in Japanese as Benzaiten ({{lang|ja|弁才天/弁財天}}) and in Thai as Suratsawadi ({{lang|th|สุรัสวดี}}) or Saratsawadi ({{lang|th|สรัสวดี}}).^[16]

History

In Hindu tradition, Sarasvati has retained her significance as a goddess from the Vedic age up to the present day.^[18] In Shanti Parva of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Saraswati is called the mother of the Vedas, and later as the celestial creative symphony who appeared when Brahma created the universe.^[9] In Book 2 of Taittiriya Brahmana, she is called “the mother of eloquent speech and melodious music”. Saraswati is the active energy and power of Brahma.^[15] She is also mentioned in many minor Sanskrit publications such as Sarada Tilaka of 8th century CE as follows,^[19]

Saraswati became a prominent deity in Buddhist iconography – the consort of Manjushri in 1st millennium CE. In some instances such as in the Sadhanamala of Buddhist pantheon, she has been symbolically represented similar to regional Hindu iconography, but unlike the more well known depictions of Saraswati.^[7]

Symbolism and iconography

The goddess Saraswati is often depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in pure white, often seated on a white lotus, which symbolizes light, knowledge and truth.^[20] She not only embodies knowledge but also the experience of the highest reality. Her iconography is typically in white themes from dress to flowers to swan – the colour symbolizing Sattwa Guna or purity, discrimination for true knowledge, insight and wisdom.^[2]^[21]

Her dhyana mantra describes her to be as white as the moon, clad in a white dress, bedecked in white ornaments, radiating with beauty, holding a book and a pen in her hands (the book represents knowledge).^[22]

She is generally shown to have four arms, but sometimes just two. When shown with four hands, those hands symbolically mirror her husband Brahma's four heads, representing manas (mind, sense), buddhi (intellect, reasoning), citta (imagination, creativity), and ahamkāra (self consciousness, ego).^[23]^[24] Brahma represents the abstract, while she represents action and reality.

The four hands hold items with symbolic meaning — a pustaka (book or script), a mālā (rosary, garland), a water pot and a musical instrument (vīnā).^[2] The book she holds symbolizes the Vedas representing the universal, divine, eternal, and true knowledge as well as all forms of learning. A mālā of crystals, representing the power of meditation, inner reflection and spirituality. A pot of water represents the purifying power to separate right from wrong, the clean from the unclean, and essence from the inessential. In some texts, the pot of water is symbolism for soma – the drink that liberates and leads to knowledge.^[2] The most famous feature on Saraswati is a musical instrument called a veena, represents all creative arts and sciences,^[23] and her holding it symbolizes expressing knowledge that creates harmony.^[2]^[25] Saraswati is also associated with anurāga, the love for and rhythm of music, which represents all emotions and feelings expressed in speech or music.

A hamsa or swan is often shown near her feet. In Hindu mythology, the hamsa is a sacred bird, which if offered a mixture of milk and water, is said to be able to drink the milk alone. It thus symbolizes the ability to discriminate between good and evil, essence from outward show, and the eternal from the evanescent.^[23] Due to her association with the swan, Saraswati is also referred to as Hamsavāhini, which means “she who has a hamsa as her vehicle”. The swan is also a symbolism for spiritual perfection, transcendence and moksha.^[21]^[26]

Sometimes a citramekhala (also called mayura, peacock) is shown beside the goddess. The peacock symbolizes colorful splendor, celebration of dance, and – as the devourer of snakes – the alchemical ability to transmute the serpent poison of self into the radiant plumage of enlightenment.^[27]

She is usually depicted near a flowing river or other body of water, which depiction may constitute a reference to her early history as a river goddess.

Saraswati becomes a river

In some texts it is written that once there a terrible battle the Bhargavas and Hehayas, from this a all consuming fire which could destroy everything was born called Vadavagni. The devas were worried and they went to Shiva. Shiva suggested that they should go to Saraswati for help as she can become a river and immerse the Vadavagni in the ocean. All the devas and devis went to Saraswati and requested her to protect the universe. She told that she would only agree if her consort, Bramha told her to do so. Then they all went to Bramha and Bramha told Saraswati to become a river. Saraswati agreed and leaves brahmaloka and arrived to earth at sage uttanka's ashram. There she met Shiva . He gave the Vadavagni in a pot to Saraswati and told her originate from Plaksha tree. Plaksha tree was ready to bear Saraswati and then Saraswati merged with the tree and transformed into a river. From there she flowed towards Pushkar. ^[28]

Saraswati continued her journey towards ocean. At last, she reached the end of her journey and immersed the fire in the ocean.

Regional manifestations of Saraswati

Avatars

There are many avatars of Goddess Saraswati. Savitri and Gayatri are consider as two wives of Brahma. Mahasaraswati is also one form of Saraswati.

She also take her Matrika (Warrior avatar) as Brahmani. Saraswati is not just the goddess of knowledge and wisdom but also she is the Brahmavidya herself, the goddess of the wisdom of ultimate truth. Her Mahavidhya forms are Matangi and Tara mahavidhya

as Buddhi, she protects her children from Maya, the other wife of Ganesha, Siddhi herself

Maha Saraswati

In some regions of India, such as Vindhya, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam, as well as east Nepal, Saraswati is part of the Devi Mahatmya mythology, in the trinity (Tridevi) of Mahakali, Mahalakshmi and Mahasaraswati.^[30]^[31] This is one of many different Hindu legends that attempt to explain how the Hindu trinity of gods (Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva) and goddesses (Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati) came into being. Various Purana texts offer alternate legends for Maha Saraswati.^[32]

Maha Saraswati is depicted as eight-armed and is often portrayed holding a Veena whilst sitting on a white lotus flower.

Her dhyāna shloka given at the beginning of the fifth chapter of Devi Mahatmya is:

Mahasaraswati is also part of another legend, the Navshaktis (not to be confused with Navdurgas), or nine forms of Shakti, namely Brahmi, Vaishnavi, Maheshwari, Kaumari, Varahi, Narsimhi, Aindri, Shivdooti and Chamunda, revered as powerful and dangerous goddesses in eastern India. They have special significance on Navaratri in these regions. All of these are seen ultimately as aspects of a single great Hindu goddess, with Maha Saraswati as one of those nine.^[34]

Mahavidya Nila Saraswati

In Tibet and parts of India, Nilasaraswati is sometimes considered as a form of Mahavidya Tara. Nila Saraswati is not much a different deity from traditional Saraswati, who subsumes her knowledge and creative energy in tantric literature. Though the traditional form of Saraswati is of calm, compassionate, and peaceful one:Nila Sarasvati is the ugra (angry, violent, destructive) manifestation in one school of Hinduism, while the more common Saraswati is the saumya (calm, compassionate, productive) manifestation found in most others. In tantric literature of the former, Nilasaraswati has 100 names. There are separate dhyana shlokas and mantras for her worship in Tantrasara.^[18]

She is worshipped in parts of India as an incarnate or incarnation of Goddess Tara but outside India She is not only worshipped but also been manifested as a form of Goddess Saraswati.{{clarification needed|date=February 2019}}{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}

Sharada avatar in Kashmir and Haryana

Sharada script is a native script of Kashmir and is named after Śāradā,^[39] another name for Saraswati, the goddess of learning.

As part of INR1200 crore Morni to Kalesar tourism development plan announced in January 2019, Government of Haryana is developing the historic Sharda Mata Temple of Chotta Trilokpur, along with Kalesar Mahadev temple, Kapal Mochan Tirth, Panchmukhi Hanuman temple of Basatiyawala, Lohgarh fort capital of Banda Singh Bahadur.^[40]

Worship

Temples

Ancient Sharada Peeth in Pakistan’s Azad Kashmir is one of the oldest surviving temples of Saraswati.

There are many temples dedicated to Saraswati around the world. Some notable temples include the Gnana Saraswati Temple in Basar on the banks of the River Godavari, the Warangal Saraswati and Shri Saraswati Kshetramu temples in Medak, Telangana. In Karnataka, one of many Saraswati/Sharada pilgrimage spots is Shringeri Sharadamba Temple. In Ernakulam district of Kerala, there is a famous Saraswati temple in North Paravur, namely Dakshina Mookambika Temple North Paravur. In Tamil Nadu, Koothanur hosts a Saraswati temple about 25 kilometres from Tiruvarur. In her identity as Brahmani, additional Sarasvati temples can be found throughout Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

Festivals

One of the most famous festivals associated with Goddess Saraswati is the Hindu festival of Vasant Panchami. Celebrated on the 5th day in the Hindu calendar month of Magha (month), it is also known as Saraswati Puja and Saraswati Jayanti in India.

Saraswati Puja in East and Northeast India

In Assam , West Bengal and Tripura, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped on Vasant Panchami, a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the 5th day in the Hindu calendar month of Magha (about February). Hindus celebrate this festival in temples, homes and educational institutes alike.^[41]^[42]

Saraswati Puja in North, West and Central India

In Bihar and Jharkhand, Vasant Panchami is commonly known as Saraswati Puja. On this day, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped in schools, colleges, educational institutes as well as in institutes associated with music and dance. Cultural programmes are also organised in schools and institutes on this day. People especially students worship Goddess Saraswati also in pandals (a tent made up of colourful cloths, decorated with lights and other decorative items). In these states, on the occasion of Saraswati Puja, Goddess Saraswati is worshipped in the form of idol, made up of soil. On Saraswati Puja, the idol is worshipped by people and prasad is distributed among the devotees after puja. Prasad mainly consists of boondi (motichoor), pieces of carrot, peas and Indian plum (ber). On the next day or any day depending on religious condition, the idol is immersed in a pond (known as Murti Visarjan or Pratima Visarjan) after performing a Havana (immolation), with full joy and fun, playing with abir and gulal. After Pratima Visarjan, members involved in the organisation of puja ceremony eat khichdi together.

In Goa,^[43] Maharashtra and Karnataka, Saraswati Puja starts with Saraswati Avahan on Maha Saptami and ends on Vijayadashami with Saraswati Udasan or Visarjan.{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}

In 2018, the Haryana government launched and sponsored the annual National Saraswati Mahotsav in its state named after Saraswati.^[44]

Saraswati Puja in South India

In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the last three days of the Navaratri festival, i.e., Ashtami, Navami, and Dashami, are celebrated as Sarasvati Puja.^[45] The celebrations start with the Puja Vypu (Placing for Worship). It consists of placing the books for puja on the Ashtami day. It may be in one's own house, in the local nursery school run by traditional teachers, or in the local temple. The books will be taken out for reading, after worship, only on the morning of the third day (Vijaya Dashami). It is called Puja Eduppu (Taking [from] Puja). Children are happy, since they are not expected to study on these days. On the Vijaya Dashami day, Kerala and Tamil Nadu celebrate the Ezhuthiniruthu or Initiation of Writing for the little children before they are admitted to nursery schools. This is also called Vidyarambham. The child is made to write for the first time on the rice spread in a plate with the index finger, guided by an elder of the family or by a teacher.^[46]

Outside the Indian subcontinent

Myanmar

In Burma, the Shwezigon Mon Inscription dated to be of 1084 AD, near Bagan, recites the name Saraswati as follows,

In Buddhist arts of Myanmar, she is called Thurathadi (or Thayéthadi).^[48]{{rp|215}} Students in Myanmar pray for her blessings before their exams.^[48]{{rp|327}} She is also believed to be, in Mahayana pantheon of Myanmar, the protector of Buddhist scriptures.^[49]

Japan

The concept of Saraswati migrated from India, through China to Japan, where she appears as Benzaiten (弁財天).^[50] Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the 6th through 8th centuries. She is often depicted holding a biwa, a traditional Japanese lute musical instrument. She is enshrined on numerous locations throughout Japan such as the Kamakura's Zeniarai Benzaiten Ugafuku Shrine or Nagoya's Kawahara Shrine;^[51] the three biggest shrines in Japan in her honour are at the Enoshima Island in Sagami Bay, the Chikubu Island in Lake Biwa, and the Itsukushima Island in Seto Inland Sea.

Cambodia

Saraswati was honoured with invocations among Hindus of Angkorian Cambodia, suggests a tenth-century and another eleventh-century inscription.^[73] She and Brahma are referred to in Cambodian epigraphy from the 7th century onwards, and she is praised by Khmer poets for being goddess of eloquence, writing and music. More offerings were made to her than to her husband Brahma. She is also referred to as Vagisvari and Bharati in Yasovarman era Khmer literature.^[52]

Thailand

In ancient Thai literature, Saraswati ({{lang-th|สุรัสวดี}}; {{RTGS|Suratsawadi}}) is the goddess of speech and learning, and consort of Brahma.^[53] Over time, Hindu and Buddhist concepts on deities merged in Thailand. Icons of Saraswati with other deities of India are found in old Thai wats.^[54] Amulets with Saraswati and a peacock are also found in Thailand.

Indonesia

Saraswati is an important goddess in Balinese Hinduism. She shares the same attributes and iconography as Saraswati in Hindu literature of India – in both places, she is the goddess of knowledge, creative arts, wisdom, language, learning and purity. In Bali, she is celebrated on Saraswati day, one of the main festivals for Hindus in Indonesia.^[56]^[57] The day marks the close of 210 day year in the Pawukon calendar.^[58]

On Saraswati day, people make offerings in the form of flowers in temples and to sacred texts. The day after Saraswati day, is Banyu Pinaruh, a day of cleansing. On this day, Hindus of Bali go to the sea, sacred waterfalls or river spots, offer prayers to Saraswati, and then rinse themselves in that water in the morning. Then they prepare a feast, such as the traditional bebek betutu and nasi kuning, that they share.^[59]

The Saraswati Day festival has a long history in Bali.^[60] It has become more widespread in Hindu community of Indonesia in recent decades, and it is celebrated with theatre and dance performance.^[58]

Tibet

In Tibet, she is known as Yang chen ma (Singing/Music Goddess),^[61] or Yang chen drolma (Singing/Music Tara) considered the consort of Mañjuśri, Buddha of Wisdom, she is one of the 21 Taras.^[62]^[63]

Saraswati is the Divine Embodiment & bestower of Enlightened Eloquence & Inspiration, patroness of the arts, sciences, music, language, literature, history, poetry & philosophy, all those engaged in creative endeavours in Tibetan Buddhism. She is considered the peaceful manifestation of Palden Lhamo(Glorious Goddess). In the Gelugpa tradition, Palden Lhamo is known as Magzor Gyalmo(the Queen who Repels Armies^[64]) and is a wrathful emanation of Saraswati while being a protector. Saraswati was the yidam (principal personal meditational deity) of 14th century Tibetan monk Je Tsongkhapa. He composed a devotional poem to her.^[65]^[66] She is believed in the Tibetan tradition to have accompanied him on his travels, as well as regularly engaging in conversations with him.{{citation needed|date=July 2017}}

See also

Citations

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2. ^¹²³⁴⁵⁶{{cite book |first=David |last=Kinsley |year=1988 |title=Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the divine feminine in the Hindu religious traditions |publisher=University of California Press |ISBN=0-520063392 |pages=55–64}}
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23. ^¹²{{cite book |first1=Griselda |last1=Pollock |first2=Victoria |last2=Turvey-Sauron |year=2008 |title=The Sacred and the Feminine: Imagination and sexual difference |ISBN=978-1845115203 |pages=144–147}}
24. ^For Sanskrit to English translation of the four words: {{cite web |url=http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html |title=Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html |archive-date=20 August 2016 |publisher=University of Koeln |location=Koeln, Germany}}
25. ^Some texts refer to her as "goddess of harmony"; for example: {{cite book |first=John |last=Wilkes |title=Encyclopaedia Londinensis |volume=22 |page=669 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3BnL4ahP4DEC |via=Google Books}}
26. ^{{cite book |first=Frithjof |last=Schuon |year=2007 |title=Spiritual Perspectives and Human Facts |ISBN=978-1933316420 |page=281}}
27. ^{{cite book |first=Hope B. |last=Werness |year=2007 |series=Continuum Encyclopedia |title=Animal Symbolism in World Art |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |ISBN=978-0826419132 |pages=319–320}}
28. ^{{Cite book|title=Saraswati|last=|first=|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=|isbn=978-93-5085-120-3|location=|pages=}}
29. ^{{Cite book|title=Saraswati|last=Stories of the goddess of wisdom|first=|publisher=Amar Chitra Katha|year=|isbn=978-93-5085-120-3|location=|pages=}}
30. ^{{cite book |first=James |last=Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism |volume=A-M |page=408 |ISBN=978-0823931804}}
31. ^{{cite book |author-link=Diana L. Eck |first=Diana L. |last=Eck |year=2013 |title=India: A sacred geography |publisher=Random House |pages=265–279 |ISBN=978-0385531924}}
32. ^{{cite book |first=C. Mackenzie |last=Brown |year=1990 |title=The Triumph of the Goddess |publisher=State University of New York Press |ISBN=978-0791403648}}
33. ^Glory of the Divine Mother (Devi Mahatmyam) by S.Sankaranarayanan. Prabha Publishers, Chennai. India.({{ISBN|81-87936-00-2}}) Page. 184
34. ^{{cite book |first=James |last=Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism |volume=N-Z |page=467 |ISBN=978-0823931804}}
35. ^{{Cite book |title=Kashur: The Kashmiri Speaking People|last=Raina|first=Mohini Qasba |year=2013 |isbn=1490701656 |page=191 |quote=The main centre of excellence was at Sharda Peeth - an ancient seat of learning on the banks of the river Kishenganga in the valley of Mount Harmukh.}}
36. ^{{cite book |title=Kashmir - distortions and reality |last=Raina |first=Dina Nath |publisher=Reliance Publishing House, University of Michigan |year=1994 |isbn=8185972524 |location=Michigan |pages=37 |quote=... during which Kashmir emerged as the "Sharda Peeth", a hallowed place for ancient learning.}}
37. ^¹²³{{Cite book|title=Kashur: The Kashmiri Speaking People|last=Raina|first=Mohini Qasba|year=2013|isbn=1490701656|location=|pages=191}}
38. ^{{cite book |title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men |last=Pollock |first=Sheldon |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=0520245008 |location=Los Angeles |page=182 |quote=... accordingly, being stored in its most perfect form in the temple of the Goddess of Speech in the far-off land of Kashmir, from where Hemacandra acquired his supremely authoritative exemplars, grammar was at the same time clearly a precious cultural good, one that could be imported and whose very possession secured high prestige for its possessor.}}
39. ^{{cite news |title=Pandits to visit Sharda temple |url=http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/17/stories/2006051704920900.htm |newspaper=The Hindu |date=17 May 2006 |accessdate=13 August 2012 |df=dmy-all}}
40. ^{{cite news |url=https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/haryana/kalesar-kalka-stretch-to-be-promoted-for-tourism/715488.html |title=Kalesar-Kalka stretch to be promoted for tourism |newspaper=The Tribune |date=18 January 2019}}
41. ^{{cite book |last=Roy |first=Christian |year=2005 |title=Traditional Festivals: A multicultural encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |volume=2 |pages=192–193 |ISBN=9781576070895}}
42. ^{{cite book |last=Knapp |first=Stephen |year=2006 |chapter=The Dharmic Festivals |title=The Power of the Dharma: An introduction to Hinduism and Vedic culture |publisher=iUniverse |page=94 |ISBN=9780595837489}}
43. ^{{cite news |last1=Kerkar |first1=Rajendra |title=Saraswati Puja: Worshipping knowledge, education |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Saraswati-Puja-Worshipping-knowledge-education/articleshow/10242689.cms |accessdate=19 October 2015 |publisher=Times of India |date=5 October 2011 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610073619/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Saraswati-Puja-Worshipping-knowledge-education/articleshow/10242689.cms |archivedate=10 June 2018 |df=dmy-all}}
44. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/chandigarh/haryana-to-celebrate-saraswati-mahotsav-on-jan-28.html |title=Haryana to celebrate Saraswati Mahotsav on Jan 28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131332/http://www.dailypioneer.com/state-editions/chandigarh/haryana-to-celebrate-saraswati-mahotsav-on-jan-28.html |archive-date=17 January 2018 |newspaper=The Daily Pioneer |date=7 January 2017}}
45. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-festival-navratri-rituals-golu-saraswati-puja-vidyarambham/20131005.htm#4 |title=Navratri rituals: Golu, Saraswati puja, Vidyarambham ... |page=4 |publisher=The Deccan Chronicle |date=2013-10-05 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015051420/http://www.rediff.com/getahead/slide-show/slide-show-1-specials-festival-navratri-rituals-golu-saraswati-puja-vidyarambham/20131005.htm#4 |archivedate=15 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}
46. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/thiruvananthapuram-gears-up-for-vidyarambham-day/article5224518.ece |title=Thiruvananthapuram gears up for Vidyarambham day |publisher=The Hindu |date=2013-10-11 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014192143/http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Thiruvananthapuram/thiruvananthapuram-gears-up-for-vidyarambham-day/article5224518.ece |archivedate=14 October 2013 |df=dmy-all}}
47. ^{{cite journal |author=Than Tun |url=http://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/55854/1/KJ00000133051.pdf |title=Saraswati of Burma |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204232849/http://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/55854/1/KJ00000133051.pdf |archivedate=4 December 2014 |journal=South East Asian Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |date=December 1976 |pages=433–441}}
48. ^¹{{cite book |first=Donald |last=Seekins |year=2006 |title=Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) |ISBN=978-0810854765}}
49. ^{{cite book |first=Josef |last=Silverstein |year=1989 |title=Independent Burma at forty years |volume=4 |page=55 |series=Monograph Southeast Asia Program |publisher=Cornell University |ISBN=978-0877271215}}
50. ^{{cite thesis |first=Catherine |last=Ludvik |year=2001 |title=From Sarasvati to Benzaiten |type=Ph.D. |location=University of Toronto |publisher=National Library of Canada |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/15465/1/NQ58639.pdf |format=PDF download |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140911123839/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/15465/1/NQ58639.pdf |archive-date=11 September 2014 |df=dmy-all}}
51. ^{{cite magazine |first=T. |last=Suzuki |year=1907 |url=http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2130&context=ocj |title=The seven gods of bliss |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407072735/http://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2130&context=ocj |archive-date=7 April 2014 |magazine=The Open Court |volume=7 |issue=2}}
52. ^¹{{cite book |first=O.W. |last=Wolters |year=1989 |title=History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives |pages=87-89 |ISBN=978-9971902421}}
53. ^{{cite book |first=George |last=McFarland |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3lb3jZaYI4C&pg=PA790#v=onepage&q&f=false |via=Google Books |title=Thai-English Dictionary |page=790}}
54. ^{{cite book |author=Patit Paban Mishra |year=2010 |title=The History of Thailand |ISBN=978-0313340918}}
55. ^Eiseman (1989) pp 184–185
56. ^{{cite news |url=http://www.thebalitimes.com/2013/01/14/saraswati-day-of-knowledge-descent/ |title=Saraswati, day of knowledge descent |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141205124019/http://www.thebalitimes.com/2013/01/14/saraswati-day-of-knowledge-descent/ |archivedate=5 December 2014 |newspaper=The Bali Times |year=2013}}
57. ^{{cite book |first=G.C. |last=Pande |title=India's Interaction with Southeast Asia |volume=1 |pages=660-661 |ISBN=978-8187586241}}
58. ^¹{{cite book |first=Mary Sabine |last=Zurbuchen |year=2014 |title=The Language of Balinese Shadow Theater |pages=49–57 |publisher=Princeton University Press |ISBN=978-0691608129}}
59. ^{{cite book |first=Vivienne |last=Kruger |title=Balinese Food: The traditional cuisine & food culture of Bali |pages=152-153 |ISBN=978-0804844505}}
60. ^{{cite book |first=Jan |last=Gonda |title=Handbook of Oriental Studies |chapter=Section 3: Southeast Asia Religions |page=45 |publisher=Brill Academic |ISBN=978-9004043305}}
61. ^{{cite book |author=Jamgon Mipham |title=Mo: The Tibetan Divination System |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6Z8KqdF6LoC |via=Google Books |year=2000 |publisher=Shambhala |isbn=978-1-55939-848-0 |pages=149–150}}
62. ^{{cite book |author=Khenchen Palden Sherab |title=Tara's Enlightened Activity: An oral commentary on the twenty-one praises to Tara |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ5g8dpx8yQC&pg=PA65 |via=Google Books |year=2007 |publisher=Shambhala|isbn=978-1-55939-864-0 |pages=65–68}}
63. ^{{cite book |author=Jampa Mackenzie Stewart |title=The Life of Longchenpa: The Omniscient Dharma King of the Vast Expanse |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GSSXAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT231 |via=Google Books |year=2014 |publisher=Shambhala Publications |isbn=978-0-8348-2911-4}}
64. ^{{Cite web |url=https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=358 |title=Buddhist Protector: Shri Devi, Magzor Gyalmo Main Page |website=www.himalayanart.org|access-date=2017-10-26 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026111616/https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=358 |archivedate=26 October 2017 |df=dmy-all}}
65. ^{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwZfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT413&lpg=PT413&dq=Sarasvati+Tsongkhapa&source=bl&ots=Xgk9PSnm-c&sig=1xaSE-QuyTLBEF1yWqaZ7HPZh5A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiKw9XFl_HYAhUFb60KHbFDBPgQ6AEIaDAP#v=onepage&q=Sarasvati%20Tsongkhapa&f=false |via=Google Books |title=Prayer to Sarasvati}}
66. ^{{cite book |last1=Kilty |first1=Gavin |title=The Splendor of an Autumn Moon: The devotional verse of Tsongkhapa |date=June 15, 2001 |publisher=Wisdom Publications |isbn=0861711920 |url=http://www.wisdompubs.org/book/splendor-autumn-moon |accessdate=24 January 2018 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125015414/http://www.wisdompubs.org/book/splendor-autumn-moon |archivedate=25 January 2018 |df=dmy-all}}
Also: {{cite web |title=The Splendor of an Autumn Moon: The devotional verse of Tsongkhapa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pwZfBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT413&lpg=PT413&dq=Sarasvati+Tsongkhapa&source=bl&ots=Xgk9PSnm-c&sig=1xaSE-QuyTLBEF1yWqaZ7HPZh5A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiKw9XFl_HYAhUFb60KHbFDBPgQ6AEIaDAP#v=onepage&q=Sarasvati%20Tsongkhapa&f=false |via=Google Books |accessdate=24 January 2018}}