| 词条 | Nepal Mandala |
| 释义 |
According to the Outline History of Nepal, Nepal consisted of three kingdoms during the early medieval period: Khas in the west, Karnatak in the south and Nepal Mandala in the center and Kirat in the east.[5] Bhaktapur was the capital of Nepal Mandala until the 15th century when three capitals, including Kathmandu and Lalitpur, were established.[6]Cultural areaThe extent of Nepal Mandala has been traditionally defined by the locations of 64 Hindu and 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites. The Hindu shrines consist of 64 Shiva lingas scattered from Brahmeswar in Nuwakot district in the west to Bhimeswar in Dolakha District in the east. The 24 Buddhist pilgrimage sites are spread from the Trishuli River in the west to Dolalghat in the east. When seen as an ordered pattern, they form the picture of the mandala of Chakrasamvara, the principal deity of Vajrayana Buddhism. Nepal Mandala was conceived on the basis of the Chakrasamvara Mandala.[7] Francis Buchanan-Hamilton has written in An Account of the Kingdom Of Nepal published in 1819 that four pilgrimage spots marked the boundaries of Nepal Proper: Nilkantha (an eight-day journey north from Kathmandu), Nateswar (three days to the south), Kaleswar (two days to the west) and Bhimeswar (four days to the east).[8]Political areaThe term mandala also means a country,[9] and it has been used to represent traditional political formations such as federation of kingdoms. The area comprising Kathmandu, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur and Dolakha during the Malla period is generally known as Nepal Mandala. According to the Outline History of Nepal, Nepal Mandala was situated between the Khas and Simraungarh kingdoms. The Khas kingdom extended from Garhwal in the west to the Trishuli River in the east, and from Lake Manasarovar in the north to the Terai in the south. Karnataka, also called Simraungarh, was situated in the Terai.[10] Western travelers in the late 18th century have written that Nepal's borders extended to Tibet in the north, the nation of the Kirata in the east, the kingdom of Makwanpur in the south[11] and the Trishuli River in the west which separated it from the kingdom of Gorkha.[12] In 1661, Jesuit Fathers Johann Grueber and Albert d'Orville travelled from Tibet to India through Nepal. They mentioned in their report that they passed through "Cuthi", the first town in the kingdom of "Necbal" (Nepal), and arrived in "Cadmendu" (Kathmandu), the capital of "Necbal". From "Cadmendu", a journey of five days brings one to "Hedouda", a market town in the kingdom of "Maranga".[13] The town of Hedouda is known as Hetauda today. The inhabitantsThe oldest inhabitants of Nepal Mandala are the Newars who are of multiple racial strains that combined over millennia. Newar civilization is a blend of different cultures that came together in Nepal Mandala.[14] According to sociologists, the people of Nepal gradually became known as Newar.[15] HistoryThe Buddhist text Manjushrimula Kalpa has mentioned Manadeva (reigned 464-506 AD) as being the king of Nepal Mandala. The term Nepal Mandala also appears in the popular Buddhist text Swayambhu Purana. It occurs in a stone inscription at Gyaneswar, Kathmandu dating from the eighth century during the reign of Licchavi king Jayadeva II.[16] The term Nepal Mandala has been used through the centuries in stone and copper inscriptions and the colophons of manuscripts when mentioning the dedicator's address. It is also referred to during important Buddhist ceremonies.[17] See also
References1. ^{{cite book |last=Prajapati|first=Subhash Ram|editor-first=Subhash Ram |editor-last=Prajapati |title=The Masked Dances of Nepal Mandal|publisher=Thimi: Madhyapur Art Council|year=2006|chapter=Nepal Mandal|isbn=99946-707-0-0}} Pages 9-11. 2. ^{{cite news|last= Dhungel|first=Ramesh K. |title= Anguished Cry of a Defeated Ruler: A Raga Song Composed by Ranajit Malla |url= https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:i102tgni8nYJ:himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/contributions/pdf/CNAS_34_01_07.pdf+cry+of+an+anguished+ruler&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjrQkDc0dQoGNZbIJTVIzhlZSg-C9ZbEuvvuDLK2R78Qaiy3utDzrEILgumdmKQLmYhxIn-DOmbYmrgH0_NAkHp9XLjjn8DrTplTax_CJnhfv2yphDqW1hTmJiFGOfSMFA69Nqg&sig=AHIEtbRx36zDXqiVOmhoA2LyxHrn2cc1YA |accessdate=22 February 2013|newspaper= Contributions to Nepalese Studies |date= January 2007}} Pages 95-102. 3. ^Slusser, Mary (1982). Nepal Mandala: A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley. Princeton University. {{ISBN|978-0-691-03128-6}}. Page vii. 4. ^{{cite book |title= The Pundits: British Exploration Of Tibet And Central Asia |first= Derek J.|last= Waller |publisher= University Press of Kentucky |location= |year= 2004|isbn=9780813191003|pages= |page=171 |accessdate= |url=}} 5. ^{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.hseb.edu.np/content/docs/teachingmannualhistoryxi.pdf| title = Outline History of Nepal| work = | publisher =Higher Secondary Education Board| date=| accessdate = 5 April 2012}} Page 2. 6. ^Michael, Thomas and Cuhaj, George (2009). Standard Catalog of World Gold Coins. Krause Publications. {{ISBN|9781440204241}}. Page 1062. 7. ^{{cite web | last = Vajracharya| first = Naresh Man| authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.aioiyama.net/lrc/papers/cbhnm-ppr-4.htm| title = Buddhism in Nepal and Nepal Mandala| work = | publisher =| date=| accessdate = 2 March 2012}} 8. ^{{cite book | last = Hamilton| first = Francis Buchanan | authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30364/30364-h/30364-h.htm#page251| title = An Account of the Kingdom Of Nepal and of the Territories Annexed to This Dominion by the House of Gorkha| work = | publisher = Edinburgh: Longman| year=1819| accessdate = 4 June 2012}} Page 192. 9. ^{{cite web | last = Subedi | first = Abhi | authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.mtnforum.org/sites/default/files/pub/6724.pdf| title = Travel as Theatre in Nepal Mandala | work = Contributions to Nepalese Studies| publisher = | date= January 2002| accessdate = 16 April 2012}} Page 173. 10. ^{{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | url = http://www.hseb.edu.np/content/docs/teachingmannualhistoryxi.pdf| title = Outline History of Nepal| work = | publisher =Higher Secondary Education Board| date=| accessdate = 6 April 2012}} Page 2. 11. ^{{cite web | last = Giuseppe| first = Father| authorlink = | coauthors = | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vSsoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA307&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false| title = Account of the Kingdom of Nepal| work = Asiatick Researches| publisher = London: Vernor and Hood| year=1799| accessdate = 9 March 2012}} Page 308. 12. ^{{cite book | last = Kirkpatrick| first = Colonel| authorlink = | coauthors = | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ijxAAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false| title = An Account of the Kingdom of Nepaul| work = | publisher = London: William Miller| year=1811| accessdate = 9 March 2012}} Page 123. 13. ^{{cite book | last = Levi| first = Sylvain| authorlink = | coauthors = | url = https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:C8hQgCDo-QUJ:himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_25_05.pdf+kuti+necbal&hl=en&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESi1sCufbZ0miDrM87qYQinPM-tdnLbKdy_9dVkkHEDDtBrFP0WMe5YCb8ugsjinxRuW5wg8jKoxs34VWa0NrMQE-EIVTF4XkqE_fBaCIaehWaSTSd667Yba6th7UQufXvovZL_H&sig=AHIEtbSJJa1YFxA2dpP--Pxsz3HtiKVAQA| title = Nepal| work = | publisher = | year=| accessdate = 14 March 2012}} Page 50. 14. ^Tamot, Kashinath (2006). Nepal Mandala. Lalitpur: Nepal Mandala Research Guthi. {{ISBN|99946-987-5-3}}. Page 11. 15. ^{{cite book |title= Fatalism and Development: Nepal's Struggle for Modernization |first= Dor Bahadur |last= Bista |publisher= Orient Blackswan |location= |year= 1991|isbn=9788125001881|pages= |page=40 |accessdate=24 August 2013 |url= https://books.google.com.np/books?id=JzFROpFVYRAC&dq=nepal+newar+dor+bahadur+bista&source=gbs_navlinks_s }} 16. ^{{cite news|last=Shrestha|first=Rajendra|title=Various Communities of Historical Nepal Mandala and Newa: Autonomous State|url=|accessdate=|newspaper=Jheegu Swanigah (Special Issue)|date=7 November 2010}} Page 60. 17. ^Gutschow, Niels (1997). "The Kathmandu Valley, Nepal Mandala: Definition of time and space" in The Nepalese caitya: 1500 years of Buddhist votive architecture in the Kathmandu Valley. Edition Axel Menges. {{ISBN|9783930698752}}. Page 15. Further reading
6 : History of Nepal|Geography of Nepal|Regions of Asia|Newar|Former kingdoms|Cultural history of Nepal |
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