“Dihedral group”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon,^[1]^[2] which includes rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of finite groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry, and chemistry.

The notation for the dihedral group differs in geometry and abstract algebra. In geometry, {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} or {{math|Dih{{sub|n}}}} refers to the symmetries of the n-gon, a group of order {{math|2n}}. In abstract algebra, {{math|D{{sub|2n}}}} refers to this same dihedral group.^[3] The geometric convention is used in this article.

Definition

Elements

A regular polygon with

sides has

different symmetries:

rotational symmetries and

reflection symmetries. Usually, we take

here. The associated rotations and reflections make up the dihedral group

. If

is odd, each axis of symmetry connects the midpoint of one side to the opposite vertex. If

is even, there are n/2 axes of symmetry connecting the midpoints of opposite sides and

axes of symmetry connecting opposite vertices. In either case, there are

axes of symmetry and

elements in the symmetry group.^[4] Reflecting in one axis of symmetry followed by reflecting in another axis of symmetry produces a rotation through twice the angle between the axes.^[5]

The following picture shows the effect of the sixteen elements of

on a stop sign:

The first row shows the effect of the eight rotations, and the second row shows the effect of the eight reflections, in each case acting on the stop sign with the orientation as shown at the top left.

Group structure

As with any geometric object, the composition of two symmetries of a regular polygon is again a symmetry of this object. With composition of symmetries to produce another as the binary operation, this gives the symmetries of a polygon the algebraic structure of a finite group.^[6]

The following Cayley table shows the effect of composition in the group D₃ (the symmetries of an equilateral triangle). r₀ denotes the identity; r₁ and r₂ denote counterclockwise rotations by 120° and 240° respectively, and s₀, s₁ and s₂ denote reflections across the three lines shown in the adjacent picture.

For example, {{nowrap|1=s₂s₁ = r₁}}, because the reflection s₁ followed by the reflection s₂ results in a rotation of 120°. The order of elements denoting the composition is right to left, reflecting the convention that the element acts on the expression to its right. The composition operation is not commutative.^[6]

In general, the group D_n has elements r₀, …, r_n−1 and s₀, …, s_n−1, with composition given by the following formulae:

In all cases, addition and subtraction of subscripts are to be performed using modular arithmetic with modulus n.

Matrix representation

If we center the regular polygon at the origin, then elements of the dihedral group act as linear transformations of the plane. This lets us represent elements of D_n as matrices, with composition being matrix multiplication.

For example, the elements of the group D₄ can be represented by the following eight matrices:

r_k is a rotation matrix, expressing a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of {{nowrap|2πk/n}}. s_k is a reflection across a line that makes an angle of {{nowrap|πk/n}} with the x-axis.

Other definitions

From the second presentation follows that {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} belongs to the class of Coxeter groups.

Small dihedral groups

The cycle graphs of dihedral groups consist of an n-element cycle and n 2-element cycles. The dark vertex in the cycle graphs below of various dihedral groups represents the identity element, and the other vertices are the other elements of the group. A cycle consists of successive powers of either of the elements connected to the identity element.

The dihedral group as symmetry group in 2D and rotation group in 3D

An example of abstract group {{math|D{{sub|n}}}}, and a common way to visualize it, is the group of Euclidean plane isometries which keep the origin fixed. These groups form one of the two series of discrete point groups in two dimensions. {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} consists of {{math|n}} rotations of multiples of {{math|360°/n}} about the origin, and reflections across {{math|n}} lines through the origin, making angles of multiples of {{math|180°/n}} with each other. This is the symmetry group of a regular polygon with {{math|n}} sides (for {{math|n ≥ 3}}; this extends to the cases {{math|n {{=}} 1}} and {{math|n {{=}} 2}} where we have a plane with respectively a point offset from the "center" of the "1-gon" and a "2-gon" or line segment).

The dihedral group D₂ is generated by the rotation r of 180 degrees, and the reflection s across the x-axis. The elements of D₂ can then be represented as {e, r, s, rs}, where e is the identity or null transformation and rs is the reflection across the y-axis.

For n > 2 the operations of rotation and reflection in general do not commute and D_n is not abelian; for example, in D₄, a rotation of 90 degrees followed by a reflection yields a different result from a reflection followed by a rotation of 90 degrees.

Thus, beyond their obvious application to problems of symmetry in the plane, these groups are among the simplest examples of non-abelian groups, and as such arise frequently as easy counterexamples to theorems which are restricted to abelian groups.

The {{math|2n}} elements of {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} can be written as {{math|e}}, {{math|r}}, {{math|r{{sup|2}}}}, … , {{math|r{{sup|n−1}}}}, {{math|s}}, {{math|r s}}, {{math|r{{sup|2}}s}}, … , {{math|r{{sup|n−1}}s}}. The first {{math|n}} listed elements are rotations and the remaining {{math|n}} elements are axis-reflections (all of which have order 2). The product of two rotations or two reflections is a rotation; the product of a rotation and a reflection is a reflection.

So far, we have considered {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} to be a subgroup of {{math|O(2)}}, i.e. the group of rotations (about the origin) and reflections (across axes through the origin) of the plane. However, notation {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} is also used for a subgroup of SO(3) which is also of abstract group type {{math|D{{sub|n}}}}: the proper symmetry group of a regular polygon embedded in three-dimensional space (if n ≥ 3). Such a figure may be considered as a degenerate regular solid with its face counted twice. Therefore, it is also called a dihedron (Greek: solid with two faces), which explains the name dihedral group (in analogy to tetrahedral, octahedral and icosahedral group, referring to the proper symmetry groups of a regular tetrahedron, octahedron, and icosahedron respectively).

Examples of 2D dihedral symmetry

Properties

The properties of the dihedral groups {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} with {{math|n ≥ 3}} depend on whether {{math|n}} is even or odd. For example, the center of {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} consists only of the identity if n is odd, but if n is even the center has two elements, namely the identity and the element r^n/2 (with D_n as a subgroup of O(2), this is inversion; since it is scalar multiplication by −1, it is clear that it commutes with any linear transformation).

In the case of 2D isometries, this corresponds to adding inversion, giving rotations and mirrors in between the existing ones.

For n twice an odd number, the abstract group {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} is isomorphic with the direct product of {{math|D{{sub|n / 2}}}} and {{math|Z{{sub|2}}}}.

Generally, if m divides n, then {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} has n/m subgroups of type {{math|D{{sub|m}}}}, and one subgroup ℤ_m. Therefore, the total number of subgroups of {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} (n ≥ 1), is equal to d(n) + σ(n), where d(n) is the number of positive divisors of n and σ(n) is the sum of the positive divisors of n. See list of small groups for the cases n ≤ 8.

The dihedral group of order 8 (D₄) is the smallest example of a group that is not a T-group. Any of its two Klein four-group subgroups (which are normal in D₄) has as normal subgroup order-2 subgroups generated by a reflection (flip) in D₄, but these subgroups are not normal in D₄.

Conjugacy classes of reflections

All the reflections are conjugate to each other in case n is odd, but they fall into two conjugacy classes if n is even. If we think of the isometries of a regular n-gon: for odd n there are rotations in the group between every pair of mirrors, while for even n only half of the mirrors can be reached from one by these rotations. Geometrically, in an odd polygon every axis of symmetry passes through a vertex and a side, while in an even polygon there are two sets of axes, each corresponding to a conjugacy class: those that pass through two vertices and those that pass through two sides.

Algebraically, this is an instance of the conjugate Sylow theorem (for n odd): for n odd, each reflection, together with the identity, form a subgroup of order 2, which is a Sylow 2-subgroup ({{nowrap|2 {{=}} 2{{sup|1}}}} is the maximum power of 2 dividing {{nowrap|2n {{=}} 2[2k + 1]}}), while for n even, these order 2 subgroups are not Sylow subgroups because 4 (a higher power of 2) divides the order of the group.

For n even there is instead an outer automorphism interchanging the two types of reflections (properly, a class of outer automorphisms, which are all conjugate by an inner automorphism).

Automorphism group

The automorphism group of {{math|D{{sub|n}}}} is isomorphic to the holomorph of ℤ/nℤ, i.e., to {{nowrap|Hol(ℤ/nℤ) {{=}} {ax + b {{!}} (a, n) {{=}} 1} }} and has order nϕ(n), where ϕ is Euler's totient function, the number of k in {{nowrap|1, …, n − 1}} coprime to n.

It can be understood in terms of the generators of a reflection and an elementary rotation (rotation by k(2π/n), for k coprime to n); which automorphisms are inner and outer depends on the parity of n.

Examples of automorphism groups

Compare the values 6 and 4 for Euler's totient function, the multiplicative group of integers modulo n for n = 9 and 10, respectively. This triples and doubles the number of automorphisms compared with the two automorphisms as isometries (keeping the order of the rotations the same or reversing the order).

The only values of n for which φ(n) = 2 are 3, 4, and 6, and consequently, there are only three dihedral groups that are isomorphic to their own automorphism groups, namely {{math|D{{sub|3}}}} (order 6), {{math|D{{sub|4}}}} (order 8), and {{math|D{{sub|6}}}} (order 12).^[7]^[8]^[9]

Inner automorphism group

Generalizations