| 词条 | Epenthesis |
| 释义 |
In phonology, epenthesis ({{IPAc-en|ɪ|ˈ|p|ɛ|n|θ|ə|s|ɪ|s|,_|ɛ|-}}; Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ἐπένθεσις}}) means the addition of one or more sounds to a word, especially to the interior of a word (at the beginning prothesis and at the end paragoge are commonly used). The word epenthesis comes from {{wikt-lang|en|epi-}} "in addition to" and en "in" and thesis "putting". Epenthesis may be divided into two types: excrescence, for the addition of a consonant, and anaptyxis ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|n|ə|p|ˈ|t|ɪ|k|s|ᵻ|s}}) for the addition of a vowel. The opposite process where one or more sounds are removed is referred to as elision. UsesEpenthesis arises for a variety of reasons. The phonotactics of a given language may discourage vowels in hiatus or consonant clusters, and a consonant or vowel may be added to make pronunciation easier. Epenthesis may be represented in writing or be a feature only of the spoken language. Separating vowelsA consonant may be added to separate vowels in hiatus. This is the case with linking and intrusive R in English.
Bridging consonant clustersA consonant may be placed between consonants in a consonant cluster where the place of articulation is different (e.g., where one consonant is labial and the other is alveolar).
Breaking consonant clustersA vowel may be placed between consonants to separate them.
Regular examples in English are {{wikt-lang|en|-i-}}, used in forming Latinate words such as {{wikt-lang|en|equidistant}}, and {{wikt-lang|en|-o-}}, used in forming words on Greek roots or general compounds, as in {{wikt-lang|en|speedometer}}. Other contextsWhile epenthesis most often occurs between two vowels or two consonants, it can also occur between a vowel and a consonant, or at the ends of words. For example, the Japanese prefix {{Nihongo||真〜（ま〜）|ma-|pure …, complete …}} transforms regularly to {{Nihongo||真っ〜（まっ〜）|ma'-|(gemination of following consonant)}} when followed by a consonant, as in {{Nihongo||真っ白（まっしろ）|masshiro|pure white}}. The English suffix {{wikt-lang|en|-t}}, often found in the form {{wikt-lang|en|-st}}, as in {{wikt-lang|en|amongst}} (from {{wikt-lang|en|among}} + {{wikt-lang|en|-st}}), is an example of terminal excrescence. Excrescence{{See also|Sandhi|Linking and intrusive R|Liaison (French)}}Excrescence, also known as vyanjanabhakti (/ˌvjɑːndʒənəˈbɑːkti/; from Sanskrit: व्यञ्जनभक्ति /ʋjənd͡ʑənəbʱəkt̪i/) is the epenthesis of a consonant.Historical sound change
Synchronic ruleIn French, {{IPA|/t/}} is inserted in inverted interrogative phrases between a verb ending in a vowel and a pronoun beginning with a vowel: {{lang|fr|il a}} ('he has') > {{lang|fr|a-t-il}} ('has he?'). There is no epenthesis from a historical perspective since the {{lang|fr|a-t}} is derived from Latin {{lang|la|habet}} ('he has'), and so the {{lang|fr|t}} is the original third-person verb inflection. However it is correct to call it epenthesis when viewed synchronically since the modern basic form of the verb is {{lang|fr|a}} and so the psycholinguistic process is therefore the addition of {{lang|fr|t}} to the base form. A similar example is the English indefinite article a, which becomes an before a vowel. It originated from Old English {{wikt-lang|ang|ān}} ("one, a, an"), which retained an n in all positions, so a diachronic analysis would see the original n disappearing except if a following vowel required its retention: an > a. However, a synchronic analysis, in keeping with the perception of most native speakers, would (equally correctly) see it as epenthesis: a > an. In Dutch, whenever the suffix {{wikt-lang|nl|-er}} (which has several meanings) is attached to a word already ending in -r, an additional {{lang|nl|-d-}} is inserted in between. For example, the comparative form of the adjective {{wikt-lang|nl|zoet}} ("sweet") is {{wikt-lang|nl|zoeter}}, but the comparative of {{wikt-lang|nl|zuur}} ("sour") is {{wikt-lang|nl|zuurder}} and not the expected **{{lang|nl|zurer}}. Similarly, the agent noun of {{wikt-lang|nl|verkopen}} ("to sell") is {{wikt-lang|nl|verkoper}} ("salesperson"), but the agent noun of {{wikt-lang|nl|uitvoeren}} ("to perform") is {{wikt-lang|nl|uitvoerder}} ("performer"). Variable rule{{further|Prince–prints merger}}In English, a stop consonant is often added as a transitional sound between the parts of a nasal + fricative sequence:
Poetic device
The three short syllables in {{lang|la|reliquiās}} do not fit into dactylic hexameter because of the dactyl's limit of two short syllables so the first syllable is lengthened by adding another l. However, the pronunciation was often not written with double ll, and may have been the normal way of pronouncing a word starting in rel- rather than a poetic modification. In JapaneseA limited number of words in Japanese use epenthetic consonants to separate vowels. An example is the word {{Nihongo||春雨（はるさめ）|harusame|spring rain}}, a compound of haru and ame in which an {{IPA|/s/}} is added to separate the final {{IPA|/u/}} of haru and the initial {{IPA|/a/}} of ame. That is a synchronic analysis. As for a diachronic (historical) analysis, since epenthetic consonants are not used regularly in modern Japanese, the epenthetic {{IPA|/s/}} could be from Old Japanese. It is also possible that Old Japanese /ame2/ was once pronounced */same2/; the {{IPA|/s/}} would then be not epenthetic but simply an archaic pronunciation. Another example is {{Nihongo||小雨（こさめ）|kosame|"light rain"}}. A complex example of epenthesis is {{Nihongo||真っ青（まっさお）|massao|deep blue, ghastly pale}}, from {{Nihongo||真〜（ま〜）|ma-|pure, complete}} + {{Nihongo||青（あお）|ao|blue}}. It exhibits epenthesis on both morphemes: {{Nihongo||真〜（ま〜）|ma-}} → {{Nihongo||真っ〜（まっ〜）|ma'-|(gemination of following consonant)}} is common (occurring before a consonant), and {{Nihongo||青（あお）|ao}} → {{Nihongo||青（さお）|sao}} occurs only in the example; it can be analyzed as maao → masao (intervocalic) → massao; akin to {{Nihongo||霧雨（きりさめ）|kirisame|drizzle, light rain}} from {{Nihongo||霧（きり）|kiri|fog, mist}} + {{Nihongo||雨（あめ）|ame|rain}}. One hypothesis argues that Japanese {{IPA|/r/}} developed "as a default, epenthetic consonant in the intervocalic position".{{sfn|Labrune|2012|loc=3.13 /r/, pp. 92–95, citing unpublished "The phonology of Japanese /r/: a panchronic account" by same author, originally from Ph.D. thesis 1993 « Le statut phonologique de /r/ en japonais et en coréen : histoire, typologie, structure interne des segments », université Paris 7, "The phonological status of /r/ in Japanese and in Korean: history, typology, internal structure of segments", Paris 7 University}} AnaptyxisEpenthesis of a vowel is known as anaptyxis ({{lang|grc|ἀνάπτυξις}}, "unfolding" in Greek, anaptyctic), or by the Sanskrit term svarabhakti (/ˌsvɑːrəˈbɑːkti/; from Sanskrit: स्वरभक्ति /sʋəɾəbʱəkt̪i/). Some accounts distinguish between "intrusive vowels", vowel-like releases of consonants as phonetic detail, and true epenthetic vowels, which are required by the phonotactics of the language and acoustically identical with phonemic vowels. Historical sound changeEnd of wordMany languages insert a so-called prop vowel at the end of a word to avoid the loss of a non-permitted cluster. The cluster can come about by a change in the phonotactics of the language that no longer permits final clusters. Something similar happened in Sanskrit, with the result that a new vowel -i or -a was added to many words. Another possibility is a sound change deleting vowels at the end of a word, which is a very common sound change. That may well produce impermissible final clusters. In some cases, the problem was resolved by allowing a resonant to become syllabic or inserting a vowel in the middle of a cluster: Proto-Germanic {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*akraz}} "field, acre" > Gothic {{wikt-lang|got-Latn|akrs}} (syllabic {{IPA|/r/}}) but Old English {{wikt-lang|ang|æcer}} (insertion of vowel). In the Gallo-Romance languages, however, a prop vowel was added: MONSTRU > {{IPA|/monstr/}} > {{IPA|/monstrə/}} (French {{wikt-lang|fr|montre}} "watch" (clock)). Middle of wordExamples are common in many Slavic languages, which had a preference for vowel-final syllables in earlier times. An example of this is the Proto-Slavic form {{lang|sla-x-proto|*gordŭ}} ("town") in which the East Slavic languages inserted an epenthetic vowel to break the cluster -rd-, resulting in {{lang|orv|городъ}} ({{transl|orv|gorodŭ}}), which became {{wikt-lang|ru|город}} ({{transl|ru|gorod}}) in modern Russian and Ukrainian. The other Slavic languages instead metathesised the vowel and the consonant: Polish {{lang|pl|gród}}, Czech {{lang|cs|hrad}}, Serbo-Croatian {{lang|sh|grad}}. Other examples exist in Modern Persian in which former word-initial consonant clusters, which were still extant in Middle Persian, are regularly broken up: Middle Persian brādar > Modern Persian {{transl|fa|barādar}} "brother" (a is pronounced {{IPA|[æ]}}), Middle Persian stūn > Early New Persian {{transl|fa|sutūn}} > Modern Iranian Persian {{transl|fa|sotūn}} "column"; modern borrowings are also affected. Beginning of wordIn the Western Romance languages, a prothetic vowel was inserted at the beginning of any word that began with {{IPA|/s/}} and another consonant: Latin {{lang|la|spatha}} "sword" > Spanish/Portuguese {{lang|es|espada}}, Catalan {{lang|ca|espasa}}, Old French {{lang|fro|espede}} > modern {{lang|fr|épée}} (see also {{wikt-lang|fr|espadon}}, the swordfish). French has a three level use of initial epenthesis depending on the time of incorporation:
Poetic device{{cn span|An example in an English song is "The Umbrella Man" whose meter requires "umbrella" to be pronounced with four syllables, um-buh-rel-là so "any umbrellas" has the meter ány úmberéllas. The same occurs in the song "Umbrella".|date=April 2018}}Grammatical ruleEpenthesis often breaks up a consonant cluster or vowel sequence that is not permitted by the phonotactics of a language. Regular or semi-regular epenthesis commonly occurs in languages with affixes. For example, a reduced vowel {{IPA|/ɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}} (here abbreviated as {{IPA|/ᵻ/}}) is inserted before the English plural suffix {{IPA|-/z/}} and the past tense suffix {{IPA|-/d/}} when the root ends in a similar consonant: glass → glasses {{IPA|/ˈɡlæsᵻz/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɡlɑːsᵻz/}}; bat → batted {{IPA|/ˈbætᵻd/}}. That is again a synchronic analysis, as the form with the vowel is the original form and the vowel was later often lost. Borrowed wordsVocalic epenthesis typically occurs when words are borrowed from a language that has consonant clusters or syllable codas that are not permitted in the borrowing language. Languages use various vowels, but schwa is quite common when it is available:
Informal speechEpenthesis most often occurs within unfamiliar or complex consonant clusters. For example, the name Dwight is commonly pronounced with an epenthetic schwa between the {{IPA|/d/}} and the {{IPA|/w/}}, and many speakers insert a schwa between the {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} of realtor. Irish English and Scottish English are some of the dialects that may insert a schwa between {{IPA|/l/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} in words like film, under the influence of Celtic languages. Epenthesis is sometimes used for humorous or childlike effect. For example, the cartoon character Yogi Bear says "pic-a-nic basket" for "picnic basket." Another example is found in the chants of England football fans in which England is usually rendered as {{IPA|[ˈɪŋɡələnd]}} or the pronunciation of "athlete" as "ath-e-lete". Some apparent occurrences of epenthesis, however, have a separate cause: the pronunciation of nuclear as {{Sic|nucular|hide=yes}} arises out of analogy with other -cular words (binocular, particular, etc.) rather than from epenthesis. Certain registers of colloquial Brazilian Portuguese sometimes have {{IPA|[i]}} between consonant clusters except those with {{IPA|/l/}} ({{lang|pl|atleta}}), {{IPA|/ɾ/}} ({{lang|pl|prato}}) or syllable-ending {{IPA|/s/}} (produced {{IPA|[ʃ]}} in a number of dialects, always postalveolar in {{lang|pl|fluminense}} and {{lang|pl|florianopolitano}} and before voiceless consonants that are not in the end of the word in {{lang|pl|nordestino}}, a rare feature in a few others) ({{lang|pl|pasta}}) and so words like {{lang|pl|tsunami}}, {{lang|pl|advogado}} and {{lang|pl|abdômen}} are pronounced {{IPA|/tisuˈnami/}}, {{IPA|/adivoˈɡadu/}} and {{IPA|[abiˈdomẽj]}}. Some dialects also use {{IPA|[e]}} for voiced consonant clusters, which is deemed as stereotypical of the lower classes: people who arrived from rural flight or internal migrations in cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Brasília and São Paulo. In Spanish, it is usual to find epenthetic vowels in sequences of plosive, flap, and vowel or labiodental fricative, flap, and vowel, normally in a non-emphatic pronunciation. For instance, {{lang|es|vinagre}} has the usual {{IPA|[biˈnaɣɾe]}} being replaced by {{IPA|[biˈnaɣ(ə)ɾe]}}. In FinnishIn Finnish, there are two epenthetic vowels and two nativization vowels. One epenthetic vowel is the preceding vowel, found in the illative case ending {{lang|fi|-(h)*n}}: {{lang|fi|maa}} → {{lang|fi|maahan}}, {{lang|fi|talo}} → {{lang|fi|taloon}}. The second is {{IPA|[e]}}, connecting stems that have historically been consonant stems to their case endings: {{lang|fi|nim+n}} → {{lang|fi|nimen}}. In Standard Finnish, consonant clusters may not be broken by epenthetic vowels; foreign words undergo consonant deletion rather than addition of vowels: {{lang|fi|ranta}} ("shore") from Proto-Germanic {{wikt-lang|gem-x-proto|*strandō}}. However, modern loans may not end in consonants. Even if the word, such as a personal name, is native, a paragogic vowel is needed to connect a consonantal case ending to the word. The vowel is {{IPA|/i/}}: {{lang|fi|(Inter)net}} → {{lang|fi|netti}}, or in the case of personal name, {{lang|fi|Bush}} + {{lang|fi|-sta}} → {{lang|fi|Bushista}} "about Bush" (elative case). Finnish has moraic consonants: {{lang|fi|l}}, {{lang|fi|h}} and {{lang|fi|n}} are of interest. In Standard Finnish, they are slightly intensified before a consonant in a medial cluster: {{lang|fi|-hj-}}. Some dialects, like Savo and Ostrobothnian, have epenthesis instead and use the preceding vowel in clusters of type {{lang|fi|-lC-}} and {{lang|fi|-hC-}}, in Savo also {{lang|fi|-nh-}}. (In Finnish linguistics, the phenomenon is often referred to as {{lang|fi|švaa}}; the same word can also mean schwa, but it is not a phoneme in Finnish so there is usually no danger of confusion.) For example, {{lang|fi|Pohjanmaa}} "Ostrobothnia" → {{lang|fi|Pohojammaa}}, {{lang|fi|ryhmä}} → {{lang|fi|ryhymä}}, and Savo {{lang|fi|vanha}} → {{lang|fi|vanaha}}. Ambiguities may result: {{lang|fi|salmi}} "strait" vs. {{lang|fi|salami}}. (An exception is that in Pohjanmaa, {{lang|fi|-lj-}} and {{lang|fi|-rj-}} become {{lang|fi|-li-}} and {{lang|fi|-ri-}}, respectively: {{lang|fi|kirja}} → {{lang|fi|kiria}}. Also, in a small region in Savo, {{IPA|/e/}} is used instead.) In LojbanLojban is a constructed language that seeks logically-oriented grammatical and phonological structures. It uses a number of consonant clusters in its words, and since it is designed to be as universal as possible, it allows a type of anaptyxis called "buffering" to be used if a speaker finds a cluster difficult or impossible to pronounce. A vowel sound that is nonexistent in Lojban is added between two consonants to make the word easier to pronounce. Despite altering the phonetics of a word, the use of buffering is completely ignored by grammar. Also, the vowel sound used must not be confused with any existing Lojban vowel. An example of buffering in Lojban: if a speaker finds the cluster {{IPA|[ml]}} in the word {{wikt-lang|jbo|mlatu}} ("cat") (pronounced {{IPA|['mlatu]}}) hard or impossible to pronounce, the vowel {{IPA|[ɐ]}} can be pronounced between the two consonants, resulting in the form {{IPA|[mɐ'latu]}}. Nothing changes grammatically, including the spelling and the syllabication of the word. In sign languageA type of epenthesis in sign language is known as "movement epenthesis" and occurs, most commonly, during the boundary between signs while the hands move from the posture required by the first sign to that required by the next.[1] Related phenomena
See also
References1. ^{{citation|title=Linguistics of American Sign Language|year=2011|first1=Scott|last1=Liddell|first2=Robert|last2=Johnson|editor1-first=Clayton|editor1-last=Valli|editor2-first=Ceil|editor2-last=Lucas|editor-link1=Clayton Valli|editorlink2=Ceil Lucas|editor3-first=Kristin|editor3-last=Mulrooney|editor4-first=Miako|display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Villanueva|publisher=Gallaudet University Press|location=Washington, DC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3j26MwEACAAJ&dq=editions:Hv6NxJ0MotIC&hl=en&sa=X&ei=VKq_UdPxLYqY0QH-z4GoCw&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ|pages=315–316|chapter=American Sign Language: The Phonological Base|edition=5|isbn=9781563685071}} }} Sources
External links
3 : Phonotactics|Phonology|Figures of speech |
| 随便看 |
|
开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。