“Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

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Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement

释义

Archaic system
Classical system
Length Area Capacity Mass Time
Relationship to other metrologies
See also
References
Citations Bibliography
Further reading
External links

Ancient Mesopotamian units of measurement originated in the loosely organized city-states of Early Dynastic Sumer. Each city, kingdom and trade guild had its own standards until the formation of the Akkadian Empire when Sargon of Akkad issued a common standard. This standard was improved by Naram-Sin, but fell into disuse after the Akkadian Empire dissolved. The standard of Naram-Sin was readopted in the Ur III period by the Nanše Hymn which reduced a plethora of multiple standards to a few agreed upon common groupings. Successors to Sumerian civilization including the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians continued to use these groupings. Akkado-Sumerian metrology has been reconstructed by applying statistical methods to compare Sumerian architecture, architectural plans, and issued official standards such as Statue B of Gudea and the bronze cubit of Nippur.

Archaic system

The systems that would later become the classical standard for Mesopotamia were developed in parallel with writing during Uruk Period Sumer (c 4000 BCE). Studies of protocuneiform indicate twelve separate counting systems used in Uruk.

Sexagesimal System S used to count slaves, animals, fish, wooden objects, stone objects, containers.
Sexagesimal System S' used to count dead animals, certain types of beer
Bi-Sexagesimal System B used to count cereal, bread, fish, milk products
Bi-Sexagesimal System B used to count rations
GAN₂ System G used to count field measurement
ŠE system Š used to count barley by volume
ŠE system Š' used to count malt by volume
ŠE system Š" used to count wheat by volume
ŠE System Š used to count barley groats
EN System E used to count weight
U₄ System U used to count calendrics
DUG_b System Db used to count milk by volume
DUG_c System Db used to count beer by volume

In Early Dynastic Sumer (c 2900–2300 BCE) metrology and mathematics were indistinguishable and treated as a single scribal discipline. The idea of an abstract number did not yet exist, thus all quantities were written as metrological symbols and never as numerals followed by a unit symbol. For example there was a symbol for one-sheep and another for one-day but no symbol for one. About 600 of these metrological symbols exist, for this reason archaic Sumerian metrology is complex and not fully understood.^[1] In general however, length, volume, and mass are derived from a theoretical standard cube, called 'gur', filled with barley, wheat, water, or oil. The mass of a gur-cube, called 'gun₂' is defined as the weight a laden ass can carry. However, because of the different specific gravities of these substances combined with dual numerical bases (sexagesimal or decimal), multiple sizes of the gur-cube were used without consensus. The different gur-cubes are related by proportion, based on the water gur-cube, according to four basic coefficients and their cubic roots.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} These coefficients are given as:

Komma = correction when planning rations with a 360-day year
Leimma = conversion from decimal to a sexagesimal number system
Diesis =
Euboic =

One official government standard of measurement of the archaic system was the Cubit of Nippur (2650 BCE). It is a Euboic Mana + 1 Diesis (432g).{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} This standard is the main reference used by archaeologists to reconstruct the system.

Classical system

A major improvement came in 2150 BCE during the Akkadian Empire under the reign of Naram-Sin when the competing systems were unified by a single official standard, the royal gur-cube.^[2] His reform is considered the first standardized system of measure in Mesopotamia.^[2] The royal gur-cube (Cuneiform: LU₂.GAL.GUR, {{cuneiform|𒈚}}{{cuneiform|𒄥}}; Akkadian: šarru kurru) was a theoretical cuboid of water approximately 6m × 6m × 0.5m from which all other units could be derived. The Neo-Sumerians continued use of the royal gur-cube as indicated by the Letter of Nanse issued in 2000 BCE by Gudea . Use of the same standard continued through the Babylonian, Assyrian, and Persian Empires.^[1]

Length

Units of length are prefixed by the logogram DU ({{cuneiform|𒁺}}) a convention of the archaic period counting system from which it was evolved. Basic length was used in architecture and field division.

Basic Length
Unit	Ratio	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
grain	1/180	še	uţţatu	𒊺}}
finger	1/30	šu-si	ubānu	𒋗}}{{cuneiform\|𒋛}}
foot	2/3	šu-du₃-a	šīzu	𒋗}}{{cuneiform\|𒆕}}{{cuneiform\|𒀀}}
cubit	1	kuš₃	ammatu	𒌑}}
step	2	ĝiri₃	šēpu	𒈨}}{{cuneiform\|𒊑}}
reed	6	gi	qanû	𒄀}}
rod	12	nindan	nindanu	𒃻}}
cord	120	eše₂	aslu	𒂠}}

Distance units were geodectic as distinguished from non-geodectic basic length units. Sumerian geodesy divided latitude into seven zones between equator and pole.

Distance
Unit	Ratio	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
rod	1/60	nidan	nindanu	𒃻}}
cord	1/6	eše₂	aslu	𒂠}}
cable	1	uš	uš	𒍑}}
league	30	da-na	bêru	𒁕}}{{cuneiform\|𒈾}}

Area

The GAN₂ system G counting system evolved into area measurements. A special unit measuring brick quantity by area was called the brick-garden (Cuneiform: SIG.SAR {{cuneiform|𒊬}}{{cuneiform|𒋞}}; Sumerian: šeg₁₂-sar; Akkadian: libittu-mūšaru) which held 720 bricks.

Basic Area
Unit	Ratio	Dimensions	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
shekel	1/60	1kuš₃ × 1kuš₃	gin₂	šiqlu	𒂆}}
garden	1	12kuš₃ × 12kuš₃	sar	mūšaru	𒊬}}
quarter-field	5	60kuš₃ × 60kuš₃	uzalak	?	𒀺}}
half-field	10	120kuš₃ × 60kuš₃	upu	ubû	𒀹}}{{cuneiform\|𒃷}}
field	100	60ĝiri₃ × 60ĝiri₃	iku	ikû	𒃷}}
estate	1,800	3eše₂ × 6eše₂	bur	būru	𒁓}}

Capacity

Capacity was measured by either the ŠE system Š for dry capacity or the ŠE system Š^* for wet capacity

Basic Volume
Unit	Ratio	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
shekel	1/60	gin₂	šiqlu	𒂆}}
bowl	1	sila₃	qû	𒋡}}
vessel	10	ban₂	sutū	𒑏}}
bushel	60	ba-ri₂-ga	parsiktu	𒁀}}{{cuneiform\|𒌷}}{{cuneiform\|𒂵}}
gur-cube	300	gur	kurru	𒄥}}

Mass

Mass was measured by the EN system E

Values below are an average of weight artifacts from Ur and Nippur. The ± value represents 1 standard deviation. All values have been rounded to second digit of the standard deviation.

Basic Mass
Unit	Ratio	Mean Value	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
grain	1/180	46.6mg ±1.9mg	še	uţţatu	𒊺}}
shekel	1	8.40g ±0.34g	gin₂	šiqlu	𒂆}}
pound	60	504g ±20g	ma-na	manû	𒈠}}{{cuneiform\|𒈾}}
load	3600	30.2kg ±1.2kg	gun₂	biltu	𒄘}}

^[3]^[4]

Time

In the Archaic System time notation was written in the U₄ System U. Multiple lunisolar calendars existed; however the civil calendar from the holy city of Nippur (Ur III period) was adopted by Babylon as their civil calendar.^[5] The calendar of Nippur dates to 3500 BCE and was itself based on older astronomical knowledge of an uncertain origin. The main astronomical cycles used to construct the calendar were the synodic month, equinox year, and sidereal day.

Basic Time
Unit	Ratio	Sumerian	Akkadian	Cuneiform
gesh	1/360	mu-eš	geš	𒈬}}{{cuneiform\|𒍑}}
watch	1/12	da-na	bêru	𒂆}}
day	1	ud	immu	𒌓}}
month	30	itud	arhu	𒌗}}
year	360	mu	šattu	𒈬}}

Relationship to other metrologies

The Classical Mesopotamian system formed the basis for Elamite, Hebrew, Urartian, Hurrian, Hittite, Ugaritic, Phoenician, Babylonian, Assyrian, Persian, Arabic, and Islamic metrologies.^[6] The Classical Mesopotamian System also has a proportional relationship, by virtue of standardized commerce, to Bronze Age Harappan and Egyptian metrologies.

References

Citations

1. ^¹Melville 2006.
2. ^¹Powell 1995, p.1955.
3. ^https://www.academia.edu/2916303/Mesopotamian_Mensuration_Balance_Pan_Weights_from_Nippur
4. ^https://www.academia.edu/2916278/Weighing_in_Mesopotamia_The_Balance_Pan_Weights_from_Ur
5. ^Ronan, 2008
6. ^Conder 1908, p. 87.

Bibliography

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{{cite web

| last = Melville
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{{cite web

| last = Ronan
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| title = Measurement of time and types of calendars » Standard units and cycles
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External links

An online calculator
{{cite web

|last=Robson
|first=Eleanor
|authorlink=Eleanor Robson
|title=Digital Corpus of Cuneiform Mathematical Texts
|work=
|publisher=
|year=2007
|url=http://cdl.museum.upenn.edu/dccmt/metrology.html
|doi=
|accessdate=2008-08-13
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090116031602/http://cdl.museum.upenn.edu/dccmt/metrology.html
|archivedate=2009-01-16
}}

{{cite web

| last = Aleff
| first = H. Peter
| authorlink =
| title = Auspicious latitudes
| work =
| publisher =
| year = 2008
| url = http://www.recoveredscience.com/consta333latitudes.htm
| doi =
| accessdate = 2008-08-13}}

{{cite journal

| last = Kreidik
| first = L. G.
| authorlink =
| author2 = T. S. Kortneva
| author3=G. P. Shpenkov
| title = 4. Fundamental periods of the World and ancient metrology
| work = Journal of theoretical Dialectics-Physics-Mathematics
| publisher = Dialectical Academy, Russia-Belarus
| year = 2005
| url = http://dialectical-physics.org/b01/04/en/b0104en.htm
| doi =
| accessdate = 2009-08-20}}{{systems of measurement}}

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