| 词条 | Conservation and restoration of ivory objects |
| 释义 |
The conservation and restoration of ivory objects is the process of maintaining and preserving objects that are ivory or include ivory material. Conservation and restoration are aimed at preserving the ivory material and physical form along with the objects condition and treatment documentation. Activities dedicated to the preservation of ivory objects include preventing agents of deterioration that specifically connect with ivory as a material, preventative conservation, and treatment of ivory objects. Conservators, curators, collections managers, and other museum personnel are in charge of taking the necessary measurements to ensure that ivory objects are well maintained and will make the decision for any conservation and restoration of the objects. Ivory as a material is the tusk or teeth from animals and is soft and mailable with nonmetal tools. Often used in decorative and practical objects, ivory can be inlaid and used an as accent within objects made from other material like metal and wood. A popular decorative ivory work is scrimshaw, which is etched ivory with black or colored pigments. Ivory has been manipulated since prehistoric times and as a material has been used in religion, as jewelry, piano keys, decorative arts, and other products. The demand for ivory has caused specific animals to become endangered, including the African and Asian Elephant. Ivory is a coveted material throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia that is illustrated in religious objects, art, and demonstrates wealth. In the last thirty years, ivory has been mainly been used the jewelry and souvenirs markets[1][2]. IvoryIvory is the tusks and unusually large or projected teeth of animals, such as elephants and walruses. It consists of dentin and made up of both organic (for growth and repair) and inorganic (rigidity and strength) components. Due to it being organic and inorganic the ivory is extremely sensitive and reactive [3] Types of ivoryUnderstanding the diverse types of ivory is important as it can impact the type of conservation and restoration work that is done. It can also determine the materials that are harmful or safe to use on the ivory. Elephant and mammothElephant and mammoth ivory comes from the two modified upper incisors. Tusks of some male African elephants can grow up to 2 meters (6 ½ feet) and weigh up to 45 kilograms (100 pounds). The tusks have a pulp cavity where the root and soft tissues attach to the jaw and that extends for approximately one-third of the tusk. By looking at if the carved ivory does or does not have the pulp cavity it can help indicate what part of the tusk was used and its original length.[4] The characteristic identifier in elephant ivory is the pattern of intersecting arcs that can be seen in the cross-section. These arcs can go by several names such as engine turnings, cross-hatchings, or Schreger lines (named after the German anatomist who first described them in 1800). The intersections of the lines form angles, obtuse arc angles are found in elephant ivory and acute arc angles are found in mammoth ivory.[4] WalrusWalrus ivory is solid its entire length with a center of secondary dentin instead of a pulp cavity. It is characterized in cross section by the central core that has a marbled appearance surrounded by the smooth creamy white dentin layer. They may grow up to 1.0 meter (3 ¼ feet) in length.[5] WarthogWarthog ivory comes from their upper and lower canine teeth and are strongly curved. It generally has squared cross sections and have a mottled appearance. When using a magnifying hand lens, the wart hog dentin shows irregularly spaced concentric lines with varying thickness.[6]NarwhalNarwhal ivory comes from a single left incisor that is produced by males. It is distinguished by its spiral form. They can grow from 2.0-7.0 meters (6 ½-23 feet) in length.[6]HippopotamusThe upper and lower canine and incisors are the most common sources for hippopotamus ivory and each one has a distinctive gross morphology. Using a magnifying hand lens, we can see tightly packed series of fine concentric lines, which can be regularly or irregularly spaced. The orientation of these lines will follow with the overall shape of the tooth. Hippo ivory is harder and opaquer than elephant or walrus ivory.[6] The upper canines are curved and are oval to rounded in the cross-section. The lower canines are the largest teeth and strongly curved. In their cross-section, they are triangular. The incisors can be described as peg shaped and the center of the tooth in the cross-section shows a small dot.[6] Sperm whale and Killer whaleBoth the Sperm whale and Killer whale have conically shaped teeth with a small amount of enamel at the tips and the rest of the tooth covered by cementum. The cross-sections of the teeth are rounded or oval. A characteristic feature is that the dentin forms in layers that alternate directions giving it a banded appearance. Their teeth are second in hardness to hippopotamus ivory. Sperm whale teeth may grow up to 20 cm (8 inches) in length while the killer whale teeth are slightly smaller. Killer whale teeth show two slight peripheral indentations and may also display a faint rosette pattern in the dentin cross-section.[6] French ivoryFrench ivory is a synthetic material that is typically composed of pigmented cellulose nitrate and/or casein. This type of ivory was commonly made in the late 19th century and early 20th century. It looks like elephant ivory and can have intersecting line patterns but the pattern is more uniform and regular than natural ivory. This ivory will be occasionally marked synthetic while “French Ivory” or “India Ivory” are common marks. It can be distinguished from natural ivory due to its lighter weight and more even coloring.[5]Cellulose nitrate can be identified with a chemical spot test using diphenylamine. This ivory can degrade and produce acidic and oxidizing nitrogen. Oxide gases have been known to spontaneously combust so if this type of ivory shows any deterioration it must be kept away from the rest of the collection.[5] Vegetable ivory (ivory nuts)Vegetable ivory is derived from several dense palm nuts that are native to Africa, South America, and the South Pacific. It is a cellulosic material. They grow to a maximum of 5 cm (approximately 2 inches) in diameter.[4]Composite mixturesCan be various mixtures including ivory dust and casein, ivory dust and styrene resin, calcium carbonate and adhesive, casein and hardener.[4] PlasticA proprietary plastic of cellulose nitrate and camphor that was developed in the mid-19th century as an ivory substitute. Other examples include polyester and phenolic resins. The plastics are sometimes laminated to show a striated surface to resembles ivory but ivory’s intersecting arc pattern cannot be reproduced. [6]Agents of DeteriorationIvory is susceptible to certain challenges to their preservation. In order to protect against damage, conservators should determine the agents that threaten its material make-up. The agents of deterioration include the following: Physical ForcesIvory is very fragile and susceptible to cracking, chipping and breakage. Ivory is porous, brittle, and prone to impact damage and delamination.[7] This can be caused by human error such as dropping, bumping, or mishandling. It can also result from improper display and storage such as unstable shelving or lack of padding. FireA special caution applies to French Ivory. Because it is usually composed of cellulose nitrate, it is potentially flammable and must be kept away from heat or other sources of ignition.[5] PestsBone, ivory, and antler are rarely attacked by insects, but horn is often seriously damaged by the larvae of carpet beetles and clothes moths.[7] Light, Ultraviolet, and InfraredIvory, bone, and antler should be kept away from bright light such as spotlights or direct sunlight. Bright light can increase the surface temperature of the object. When exposed to light, ivory can become stained or bleached, and ultraviolet light can cause it to yellow. Incorrect Relative HumidityIvory is hygroscopic and anisotropic which means it absorbs or releases moisture with changing humidity.[7] Ivory tends to shrink, swell, crack, split, and/or warp on exposure to extremes or fluctuations in relative humidity and temperature. Low relative humidity causes desiccation, shrinkage and cracking, while high relative humidity can cause warping and swelling.[8] Thieves and vandalsIvory objects may be have come from illegal trade, so it is important to know what type of ivory the object is made from and its provenance. WaterThe organic components in ivory is called ossein, which is decomposed by hydrolysis and after long-term exposure can cause the ivory to turn into a sponge-like substance. Even for cleaning purposes, water can damage ivory so it should be avoided.[8] PollutantsCorroded metals and colored materials can stain ivory and should not be placed near them. [5] Dust can be removed from ivory using a soft brush. [5] Incorrect TemperatureAlthough ivory is most susceptible to fluctuation in relative humidity, it should be kept at a stable temperature that does not exceed 25C/77F. [5] Ivory will warp in high temperatures, therefore extreme conditions in temperature should be avoided. [8] DisassociationDisassociation is the result of losing an object or object-related data. Attempting to remove the ivory’s patina or attempting to clean or repair an ivory object that is in poor condition can cause damage and lead to the loss of valuable information on the object’s origins or production method. [5] Preventive conservationHandlingWhen working with ivory objects it is important to wear white cotton gloves and if none are available be sure to thoroughly wash hands prior to touching the object.[8] Since ivory is a porous material it is susceptible to staining. Ivory will yellow and/or brown with repeated contact to skin, fatty acids, and oils. Temperature and relative humidityIvory is a hygroscopic material meaning that is absorbs and releases moisture with changing humidity. It is very reactive to its environment with the most severe changes linking to temperature and relative humidity. The relative humidity ideally is between 45-55% and the temperature at 70˚F (21.11˚C). If the relative humidity is too low it can lead to desiccation, shrinkage, and cracking. When the relative humidity it too high is can cause warping and swelling of the ivory.[8] If the relative humidity exceeds 60% for a sustained time there is a chance that mold can develop on the ivory. It will be a white and greenish fuzzy growth that will require particular care and cleaning.[9] Research has found that temperature does not have as great of an impact on the condition of ivory that relative humidity does.[8] Big fluctuations with either temperature of relative humidity is harmful. When the temperature fluctuates from normal to high heat it will cause expansion and contraction of the ivory.[5] Elevated temperatures can also result in a series of color changes.[3] LightingSunlight and artificial light can damage the surface of the ivory by discoloring (patina) as well as make it more brittle. Sunlit or spotlight display cases as well as any closed cases where heat can build up from interior light bulbs will cause further damage ivory. Dark storage areas will help to prevent damage to the ivory objects.[8] Lighting is kept at 5 foot-candles Integrated pest managementIvory is very rarely attacked by insects but benefits from being routinely inspected to ensure no pest activity. Rodents or other small mammals can cause structural damage by chewing on the surface of ivory.[9] By maintaining good housekeeping and having an integrated pest management program will help prevent infestations. Proper storageTightly closed display cases or storage will provide protection from any sudden changes in temperature, relative humidity, dirt, and dust. Storage drawers lined with a chemically stable cushioning material, for example polyethylene or polypropylene will protect the surface of the ivory. Another option for storage is wrapping it in unbuffered, acid free tissue paper and stored in a sealed polyethylene bag. Well washed unbleached muslin or dipper fabrication can substitute the tissue. Avoid rubber based materials as it can cause unnatural yellowing of ivory.[5] Avoid storing or displaying ivory near radiators, heat pipes, outside windows, and incandescent lights as they can cause excessive drying and temperature fluctuations.[9] Conservation and restorationCleaningIf the ivory object is in good stable condition, cleaning the surface of dirt and grime with is appropriate.[5] If the dusting is not enough the ivory can be cleaned with a mixture of water and mild soap (such as Ivory Snow or WA Paste). Never soak ivory as the water could cause the dirt to become more visible by embedding it into cracks or pores.[10] Many liquids can be destructive to ivory so avoid if possible or contact a professional. Stabilization and structural treatmentsAvoid over the counter adhesives when repairing cracks or breaks of ivory. These repairs are difficult and the use of poor adhesives can result in staining of the ivory and embrittlement as the adhesives age.[9] Breaks and cracks can be important historically and show its use of the object. Unnecessary repairs can result in the loss of that historical information. Contact a conservator before any structural repairs are made.[9] Surface treatmentsAvoid wax or other protective coatings as they can age over time resulting in yellowing or darkening of the ivory surface. It can also obscure surface details that may be important to the object. The protective coatings can become difficult or even impossible to remove without damage to the object.[9] If possible to remove unstable surface treatments, do so with appropriate solvents. Use caution and have a professional consulted before doing any work on the ivory.[11] InterventionEspecially in archaeological contexts, interventive treatment may in some cases be considered necessary. Such intervention is governed by conservation ethics, in particular the principles of reversibility and minimum intervention. Possible treatments include the reduction of salts to prevent further deterioration, and the consolidation of delaminating and friable components. Any treatment should be undertaken by a conservation professional.[12] Identifying ivory and previous treatmentsVisual examinationVisual examination is a very useful method to identify ivory. By using the characteristics of the variety of ivories listed about in addition to images and samples often they type of ivory can be identified. It is helpful to consider the size of the object, if it is a long and uninterrupted section it is may be elephant or mammoth. The weight is another indicator as ivory and bone are heavier than shell, horn, plastics, and composite mixtures.[4] Ultraviolet examinationBy using ultraviolet light, it will help determine if the material is ivory or made from another material in a non-destructive way. The long wave ultraviolet light will fluoresce assorted colors or absorb the light which will help characterize the material. Ivory will fluoresce a bluish-white color as does bone and shell. Vegetable ivory will fluoresce a slightly orange color and the plastic ivory will absorb the light making it appear dull blue or matte.[13] Ultraviolet light can also be used to see previous conservation materials and work done on the ivory along with possible pigmentation.[11] Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy“Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) is an analytical method that characterizes organic material based on the energy emitted by the bonds of specific chemical compounds comprising the composition of a sample when submitted to infrared radiation.[4]” FTIR can differentiate ivory from other materials, except bone, as they have a similar chemical composition. It can also help identify the chemical composition of any pigments used on the ivory along with the previous mixtures and materials used for conservation or restoration of the object.[11] X-RadiographyX-ray can be used to look at the type of ivory it could be, if there are two separate pieces of ivory attached to each other, if there are nails/screws holding them together either from its original creators or for restoration work.[11]DNA analysisDNA analysis is a more precise method of identification as it can identify if it is an African or Asian elephant and even specific areas from within a country that the ivory may belong to. This method requires a small sample of ivory where the mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA can be isolated and compared.[4]Contact a professionalIvory is extremely sensitive and reactive, if it is broken or extremely dirty please contact a professional conservator to conduct the repairs and extensive cleaning. Ethical concernsWith the dramatic decline in population for African and Asian elephants along with poaching there are certain laws and regulations for ivory. Laws[14]See also, Ivory trade.
Transportation regulationsAs of 2016, new regulations in the United States have been put into place regarding African-elephant Ivory and Asian-elephant Ivory. It is important to understand not only the federal laws but the state laws as well, as they can differ.[15] African elephant ivoryImportCommercial Purposes: It is now illegal to import African elephant ivory (raw, worked, antique, or brand new) into the United States for any commercial purpose. Non-Commercial Purposes: If the ivory was removed from the wild prior to February 26, 1976 and was otherwise legally acquired then the following can be imported into the United States for non-commercial purposes.
Sale & exportCommercial Purposes: To commercially export an item containing ivory it must qualify as an antique, as defined by the Endangered Species Act.
Non-commercial purposes: To be eligible it must be an antique as defined by the ESA, or it but have been created prior to 1979 and has not be bought or sold since that time. It is still illegal under federal law to export raw African elephant ivory for any purpose (commercial or non-commercial) Interstate commerce: To be eligible for legal sale across state lines it must satisfy the laws of the relevant states and either be an antique as defined by the ESA or it must have been legally important into the United States prior to 1990 and contain only a small amount of ivory (de minimis exception). Intrastate commerce: Under federal law, it the item was legally imported before 1990 or was imported with a CITES pre-convention certificate it can be sold within a state, if it also complies with relevant state and local laws.[15] Asian elephant ivoryImport, export, & interstate commerceIt is legal if it meets the following criteria:
Intrastate commercean antique ivory can be sold within a state only if it has documentation from CITES certifying that it was imported prior to 1975.[15] Traveling exhibitionWorked African elephant ivory can be imported as part of a traveling exhibition if the ivory was legally acquired before February 26, 1976, it has not been transferred from one person to another for financial gain or profit after February 25, 2014, the person/group qualifies for a CITES traveling exhibition certificate, the ivory is accompanied by the CITES traveling exhibition certificate or and equivalent documents that meets the requirements. Raw African elephant ivory cannot be imported as part of a traveling exhibition.[4] See also
References1. ^{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/history-ivory-trade/|title=The History of the Ivory Trade|last=Society|first=National Geographic|date=2013-02-25|website=National Geographic Society|language=en|access-date=2019-03-31}} 2. ^"To Save An Elephant" by Allan Thornton & Dave Currey, Doubleday 1991 ISBN 0-385-40111-6 3. ^1 {{cite book |last = Craft | first = Meg |editor = Harriet Whelchel |title = Caring for your collections | year = 1992 |publisher= Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated |location=New York |isbn=0-8109-2558-3 |pages=96–107 }} 4. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 {{cite journal |last=Hornbeck |first=Stephanie |year=2014 |title=Ivory: identification and regulation of a precious material |journal= National Museum of African Art Conservation Lab |pages=1–10 |publisher=Smithsonian National Museum of African Art |url=http://anyflip.com/zvle/rhnl/basic }} 5. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 {{cite web |url=http://canada.pch.gc.ca/eng/1439925170216 |title= Care of ivory, bone, horn, and antler - Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 6/1 |author=Tom Stone |date=2014 |publisher=Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada }} 6. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web |url=https://www.fws.gov/lab/ivory_guide.php |title=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services Forensics Laboratory |author= U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Forensics Lab |date=2010 |publisher= U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services }} 7. ^1 2 {{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/conservation-institute/services/conservation-preservation-publications/canadian-conservation-institute-notes/care-ivory-bone-horn-antler.html|title=Care of Ivory, Bone, Horn and Antler – Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 6/1|last=Institute|first=Canadian Conservation|date=2017-09-14|website=aem|access-date=2019-04-01}} 8. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 {{cite web |url=https://www.si.edu/mci/english/learn_more/taking_care/ivory.html |title= THE CARE AND HANDLING OF IVORY OBJECTS |author=Smithsonian |publisher=Smithsonian Museum Conservation Institute }} 9. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite book |last=Storch |first=Paul S. |editor= Sherelyn Ogden |title=Caring for American Indian objects: a practical and cultural guide |year=2004 |publisher= Minnesota Historical Society |location=St.Paul, MN |isbn= 0-87351-505-6 |chapter= Bone, Antler, Ivory, and Teeth }} 10. ^{{cite book |last=Pouliot |first=Bruno |editors= Onie Rollins |title=The Winterthur Guide to caring for your collection |year=2009 |publisher=The Henry Francis Du Pont Winterthur Museum, Inc. |location=Delaware |isbn=978-0-912724-52-2 |chapter=Organic Materials }} 11. ^1 2 3 {{cite journal|last1=Passmore|first1=Emma|last2=Ambers|first2=Janet|year=2012|title=Hidden, looted, saved: the scientific research and conservation of a group of Bergram Ivories from the National Museum of Afghanistan|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/BMTRB_6_Passmore-et-al.pdf|journal=Technical Research Bulletin|publisher=The British Museum|volume=6|pages=33–46}} 12. ^{{cite book |editor=Ward, Gerald W.R. |title= The Grove Encyclopedia of Materials and Techniques in Art |year=2008 |publisher= Oxford University Press |pages=299–301 |isbn=978-0-19-531391-8 }} 13. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/Ivory|title=AIC Wiki Ivory|author1=Vanessa Muros|author2=Yuri Yanchyshyn|date=2011|publisher=Object Specialty Group Conservation Wiki|author3=Randy S. Wilkinson|author4=Jean Portell|author5=Stephanie Hornbeck}} 14. ^ Objects Specialty Group of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 15. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/roadshow/stories/articles/2015/6/22/ivory-law/ |title=Overview of Current Ivory Law |author=Ben Phelan |date= 22 June 2015 |publisher=PBS }} Further reading
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