请输入您要查询的百科知识：

　

词条 Abusive head trauma
释义

  1. Signs and symptoms

  2. Risk factors

  3. Mechanism

     Force 

  4. Diagnosis

     Triad   Classification   Differential diagnosis  Vitamin C deficiency  Gestational problems 

  5. Prevention

  6. Treatment

  7. Prognosis

  8. Epidemiology

  9. History

  10. Legal issues

  11. References

  12. External links

{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Abusive head trauma
| synonyms = Shaken baby syndrome, non accidental head injury
| image = CTheatInfantAbusiveheadtrauma.png
| caption = An intraparenchymal bleed with overlying skull fracture from abusive head trauma
| symptoms = Variable[1]
| complications = Seizures, visual impairment, cerebral palsy, cognitive impairment[2][1]
| onset = Less than 5 years old[4]
| duration =
| types =
| causes = Blunt trauma, vigorous shaking[1]
| risks =
| diagnosis = CT scan[1]
| differential =
| prevention = Educating new parents[1]
| treatment =
| medication =
| prognosis = Long term health problems common[4]
| frequency = 3 per 10,000 babies per year (US)[1]
| deaths = ≈25% risk of death[4]
}}Abusive head trauma (AHT), commonly known as shaken baby syndrome (SBS), is an injury to a child's head caused by someone else.[1] Symptoms may range from subtle to obvious.[1] Symptoms may include vomiting or a baby that will not settle.[1] Often there are no visible signs of trauma.[1] Complications include seizures, visual impairment, cerebral palsy, and cognitive impairment.[2][1]

The cause may be blunt trauma or vigorous shaking.[1] Often this occurs as a result of a caregiver becoming frustrated due to the child crying.[4] Diagnosis can be difficult as symptoms may be nonspecific.[1] A CT scan of the head is typically recommended if a concern is present.[1] While retinal bleeding is common, it can also occur in other conditions.[1] Abusive head trauma is a type of child abuse.[3]

Educating new parents appears to be beneficial in decreasing rates of the condition.[1] Treatment occasionally requires surgery, such as to place a cerebral shunt.[1] AHT is estimated to occur in 3 to 4 per 10,000 babies a year.[1] It occurs most frequently in those less than five years of age.[4] The risk of death is about 25%.[4] The diagnosis may also carry legal consequences for the parents.[3]

{{TOC limit|3}}

Signs and symptoms

Characteristic injuries associated with AHT include retinal bleeds, multiple fractures of the long bones, and subdural hematomas (bleeding in the brain).[5] These signs have evolved through the years as the accepted and recognized signs of child abuse. Medical professionals strongly suspect shaking as the cause of injuries when a young child presents with retinal bleed, fractures, soft tissue injuries or subdural hematoma, that cannot be explained by accidental trauma or other medical conditions.[6]

Retinal bleeds occur in around 85% of AHT cases; the type of retinal bleeds are particularly characteristic of this condition, making the finding useful in establishing the diagnosis.[7] While there are many other causes of retinal bleeds besides AHT, there are usually additional findings (eyes or systemic) which make the alternative diagnoses apparent.{{Citation needed|date=January 2015}}

Fractures of the vertebrae, long bones, and ribs may also be associated with AHT.[8] Dr. John Caffey reported in 1972 that metaphyseal avulsions (small fragments of bone had been torn off where the periosteum covering the bone and the cortical bone are tightly bound together) and "bones on both the proximal and distal sides of a single joint are affected, especially at the knee".[33]

People after AHT may display irritability, failure to thrive, alterations in eating patterns, lethargy, vomiting, seizures, bulging or tense fontanels (the soft spots on a baby's head), increased size of the head, altered breathing, and dilated pupils.[9]

Risk factors

Caregivers that are at risk for becoming abusive often have unrealistic expectations of the child and may display "role reversal", expecting the child to fulfill the needs of the caregiver.[35] Substance abuse and emotional stress, resulting for example from financial troubles, are other risk factors for aggression and impulsiveness in caregivers.[35] Both males and females can cause AHT.[35] Although it had been previously speculated that AHT was an isolated event, evidence of prior child abuse is a common finding.[35] In an estimated 33–40% of cases, evidence of prior head injuries, such as old intracranial bleeds, is present.[35]

Mechanism

Effects of AHT are diffuse axonal injury, oxygen deprivation and swelling of the brain,[10] which can raise pressure inside the skull and damage delicate brain tissue.

Traumatic shaking occurs when a child is shaken in such a way that its head is flung backwards and forwards.[41] In 1971, Guthkelch, a neurosurgeon, hypothesized that such shaking can result in a subdural hematoma, in the absence of any detectable external signs of injury to the skull.[41] The article describes two cases in which the parents admitted that for various reasons they had shaken the child before it became ill.[41] Moreover, one of the babies had retinal hemorrhages.[41] The association between traumatic shaking, subdural hematoma and retinal hemorrhages was described in 1972 and referred to as whiplash shaken infant syndrome.[41] The injuries were believed to occur because shaking the child subjected the head to acceleration–deceleration and rotational forces.[41] In 1987, this theory was queried in a biomechanical study which concluded that isolated shaking, in the absence of direct violence, is probably not of sufficient force to cause the injuries described as part of the triad.[41] It has been suggested that the mechanism of ocular abnormalities is related to vitreoretinal traction, with movement of the vitreous contributing to development of the characteristic retinal bleeds, although this has been challenged.[11] These eye findings correlate well with intracranial abnormalities.[12]

Force

There has been controversy regarding the amount of force required to produce the brain damage seen in AHT. There is broad agreement, even amongst skeptics, that shaking of a baby is dangerous and can be fatal.[13][14][15]

A biomechanical analysis published in 2005 reported that "forceful shaking can severely injure or kill an infant, this is because the cervical spine would be severely injured and not because subdural hematomas would be caused by high head rotational accelerations... an infant head subjected to the levels of rotational velocity and acceleration called for in the SBS literature, would experience forces on the infant neck far exceeding the limits for structural failure of the cervical spine. Furthermore, shaking cervical spine injury can occur at much lower levels of head velocity and acceleration than those reported for SBS." [16] Other authors were critical of the mathematical analysis by Bandak, citing concerns about the calculations the author used concluding "In light of the numerical errors in Bandak’s neck force estimations, we question the resolute tenor of Bandak’s conclusions that neck injuries would occur in all shaking events."[17] Other authors critical of the model proposed by Bandak concluding "the mechanical analogue proposed in the paper may not be entirely appropriate when used to model the motion of the head and neck of infants when a baby is shaken."[18] Bandak responded to the criticism in a letter to the editor published in Forensic Science International in February 2006.[19]

Diagnosis

Diagnosis can be difficult as symptoms may be nonspecific.[1] A CT scan of the head is typically recommended if a concern is present.[1] While retinal bleeding is common, it can also occur in other conditions.[1]

Triad

While the findings of AHT are complex and many,[20] they are often referred to as a "triad".[21]

SBS may be misdiagnosed, underdiagnosed, and overdiagnosed,[22] and caregivers may lie or be unaware of the mechanism of injury.[23] Commonly, there are no externally visible signs of the condition.[23] Examination by an experienced ophthalmologist is often critical in diagnosing shaken baby syndrome, as particular forms of ocular bleeding are quite characteristic.[34][35][36] This contested hypothesis is based upon a speculated marginal, near scorbutic condition or lack of essential nutrient(s) repletion and a potential elevated histamine level. However, symptoms consistent with increased histamine levels, such as low blood pressure and allergic symptoms, are not commonly associated with scurvy as clinically significant vitamin C deficiency. A literature review of this hypothesis in the journal ''Pediatrics International'' concluded the following: "From the available information in the literature, concluded that there was no convincing evidence to conclude that vitamin C deficiency can be considered to be a cause of shaken baby syndrome."[37]

The proponents of such hypotheses often question the adequacy of nutrient tissue levels, especially vitamin C,[38][39] for those children currently or recently ill, bacterial infections, those with higher individual requirements, those suffering from environmental challenges (e.g. allergies), and perhaps transient vaccination-related stresses.[40] At the time of this writing, infantile scurvy in the United States is practically nonexistent.[41] No cases of scurvy mimicking SBS or sudden infant death syndrome have been reported, and scurvy typically occurs later in infancy, rarely causes death or intracranial bleeding, and is accompanied by other changes of the bones and skin and invariably an unusually deficient dietary history.[42][43]

In one study vaccination was shown not associated with retinal hemorrhages.[44]

Gestational problems

Gestational problems affecting both mother and fetus, the birthing process, prematurity and nutritional deficits can accelerate skeletal and hemorrhagic pathologies that can also mimic SBS, even before birth.[45][46][47][48]{{verification needed|date=July 2015}}

Prevention

Interventions by neonatal nurses including giving parents information about abusive head trauma, normal infant crying and reasons for crying, teaching how to calm an infant, and how to cope if the infant was inconsolable may reduce rates of AHT.[49]

Treatment

Treatment involves monitoring intracranial pressure (the pressure within the skull), draining fluid from the cerebral ventricles, and, if an intracranial hematoma is present, draining the blood collection.[10]

Prognosis

Prognosis depends on severity and can range from total recovery to severe disability to death when the injury is severe.[10]

One third of these patients die, one third survives with a major neurological condition, and only one third survives in good condition. The most frequent neurological impairments are learning disabilities, seizure disorders, speech disabilities, hydrocephalus, cerebral palsy, and visual disorders.[26]

Epidemiology

Small children are at particularly high risk for the abuse that causes SBS given the large difference in size between the small child and an adult.[23] SBS usually occurs in children under the age of two but may occur in those up to age five.[23]

History

In 1971, Norman Guthkelch proposed that whiplash injury caused subdural bleeding in infants by tearing the veins in the subdural space.[50][51] The term "whiplash shaken infant syndrome" was introduced by Dr. John Caffey, a pediatric radiologist, in 1973,[52] describing a set of symptoms found with little or no external evidence of head trauma, including retinal bleeds and intracranial bleeds with subdural or subarachnoid bleeding or both.[53] Development of computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging techniques in the 1970s and 1980s advanced the ability to diagnose the syndrome.[23]

Legal issues

The President's Council of Advisers on Science and Technology (PCAST) noted in its September 2016 report that there are concerns regarding the scientific validity of forensic evidence of abusive head trauma that "require urgent attention.".[54] Similarly, the Maguire model, suggested in 2011 as a potential statistical model for determining the probability that a child's trauma was caused by abuse, has been questioned.[55] A proposed clinical prediction rule with high sensitivity and low specificity, to rule out Abusive Head Trauma, has been published.[56]

In July 2005, the Court of Appeals in the United Kingdom heard four appeals of SBS convictions: one case was dropped, the sentence was reduced for one, and two convictions were upheld.[57] The court found that the classic triad of retinal bleeding, subdural hematoma, and acute encephalopathy are not 100% diagnostic of SBS and that clinical history is also important. In the Court's ruling, they upheld the clinical concept of SBS but dismissed one case and reduced another from murder to manslaughter.[57] In their words: "Whilst a strong pointer to NAHI [non-accidental head injury] on its own we do not think it possible to find that it must automatically and necessarily lead to a diagnosis of NAHI. All the circumstances, including the clinical picture, must be taken into account."[58]

The court invalidated the "unified hypothesis", proposed by British physician J. F. Geddes and colleagues, as an alternative mechanism for the subdural and retinal bleeding found in suspected cases of SBS.[57] The unified hypothesis proposed that the bleeding was not caused by shearing of subdural and retinal veins but rather by cerebral hypoxia, increased intracranial pressure, and increased pressure in the brain's blood vessels.[57] The court reported that "the unified hypothesis [could] no longer be regarded as a credible or alternative cause of the triad of injuries": subdural haemorrhage, retinal bleeding and encephalopathy due to hypoxemia (low blood oxygen) found in suspected SBS.[57]

On January 31, 2008, the Wisconsin Court of Appeals granted Audrey A. Edmunds a new trial based on "competing credible medical opinions in determining whether there is a reasonable doubt as to Edmunds's guilt." Specifically, the appeals court found that "Edmunds presented evidence that was not discovered until after her conviction, in the form of expert medical testimony, that a significant and legitimate debate in the medical community has developed in the past ten years over whether infants can be fatally injured through shaking alone, whether an infant may suffer head trauma and yet experience a significant lucid interval prior to death, and whether other causes may mimic the symptoms traditionally viewed as indicating shaken baby or shaken impact syndrome."[59][60]

In 2012, A. Norman Guthkelch, the neurosurgeon often credited with "discovering" the diagnosis of SBS,[61] published an article "after 40 years of consideration," which is harshly critical of shaken baby prosecutions based solely on the triad of injuries.[62] Again, in 2012, Dr. Guthkelch stated in an interview, "I think we need to go back to the drawing board and make a more thorough assessment of these fatal cases, and I am going to bet . . . that we are going to find in every - or at least the large majority of cases, the child had another severe illness of some sort which was missed until too late."[63] Furthermore, in 2015, Dr. Guthkelch went so far as to say, "I was against defining this thing as a syndrome in the first instance. To go on and say every time you see it, it's a crime...It became an easy way to go into jail."[64]

On the other hand, Teri Covington, who runs the National Center for Child Death Review Policy and Practice, worries that such caution has led to a growing number of cases of child abuse in which the abuser is not punished.[61]

In March 2016, Waney Squier, a paediatric neuropathologist who has served as an expert witness in many shaken baby trials, was struck off the medical register for misconduct.[65] Shortly after her conviction, Dr. Squier was given the "champion of justice" award by the International Innocence Network for her efforts to free those wrongfully convicted of shaken baby syndrome.[66]

Squier denied the allegations and appealed the decision to strike her off the medical register.[67] As her case was heard by the High Court of England and Wales in October 2016, an open letter to the British Medical Journal questioning the decision to strike off Dr. Squier, was signed by 350 doctors, scientists, and attorneys.[68] On 3 November 2016, the court published a judgment which concluded that "the determination of the MPT is in many significant respects flawed".[69] The judge found that she had committed serious professional misconduct but was not dishonest. She was reinstated to the medical register but is not allowed to give expert evidence in court for three years.[70]

References

1. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 {{cite journal|last1=Shaahinfar|first1=A|last2=Whitelaw|first2=KD|last3=Mansour|first3=KM|title=Update on abusive head trauma.|journal=Current Opinion in Pediatrics|date=June 2015|volume=27|issue=3|pages=308–14|pmid=25768258|doi=10.1097/mop.0000000000000207}}
2. ^1 {{cite book|title=Advanced Pediatric Assessment, Second Edition|date=2014|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=9780826161765|page=484|edition=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LbvxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA484|language=en|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105195726/https://books.google.com/books?id=LbvxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA484|archivedate=2017-11-05|df=}}
3. ^1 {{cite journal|last1=Christian|first1=CW|last2=Block|first2=R|title=Abusive head trauma in infants and children.|journal=Pediatrics|date=May 2009|volume=123|issue=5|pages=1409–11|pmid=19403508|doi=10.1542/peds.2009-0408}}
4. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{cite web|title=Preventing Abusive Head Trauma in Children|url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childmaltreatment/Abusive-Head-Trauma.html|website=www.cdc.gov|accessdate=9 June 2017|language=en-us|date=4 April 2017|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611212045/https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/childmaltreatment/Abusive-Head-Trauma.html|archivedate=11 June 2017|df=}}
5. ^{{Cite web |url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/shakenbaby/shakenbaby.htm |title=NINDS Shaken Baby Syndrome information page |date=2014-02-14 |publisher=National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529085726/http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/shakenbaby/shakenbaby.htm |archivedate=2014-05-29 |df= |access-date=2008-06-23 }}
6. ^B.G.Brogdon, Tor Shwayder, Jamie Elifritz Child Abuse and its Mimics in Skin and Bone
7. ^{{Cite journal|author=Levin AV|title=Retinal hemorrhage in abusive head trauma|journal=Pediatrics|volume=126|issue=5|pages=961–70|date=November 2010|pmid=20921069|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/126/5/961.long|doi=10.1542/peds.2010-1220|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141020182726/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/126/5/961.long|archivedate=2014-10-20|df=}}
8. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kempe CH, Silverman FN, Steele BF, Droegemueller W, Silver HK |title=The battered-child syndrome |journal=JAMA |volume=181 |issue= |pages=17–24 |date=July 1962 |pmid=14455086 |doi=10.1001/jama.1962.03050270019004}}
9. ^Types of brain injury: Shaken baby syndrome {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018030246/http://www.biausa.org/Pages/types_of_brain_injury.html |date=2007-10-18 }}. Brain Injury Association of America. Retrieved on September 24, 2007.
10. ^1 2 3 {{Cite web | url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/515880 | title=Shaken Baby Syndrome | accessdate=2011-04-27 | publisher=Journal of Forensic Nursing | deadurl=no | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305145648/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/515880 | archivedate=2014-03-05 | df= }}
11. ^Vitreoretinal traction is a major factor in causing the haemorrhagic retinopathy of abusive head injury? – No {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110050058/http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v23/n9/full/eye2009200a.html |date=2015-01-10 }} Eye, Clarke M.P.
12. ^Post Mortem Findings
13. ^{{cite journal|author=The Royal College of Pathologists |title=Report Of A Meeting On The Pathology Of Traumatic Head Injury In Children |url=https://www.rcpath.org/Resources/RCPath/Migrated%20Resources/Documents/S/sbs_meeting_report_final.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602182505/http://www.rcpath.org/Resources/RCPath/Migrated%20Resources/Documents/S/sbs_meeting_report_final.pdf |archivedate=2013-06-02 |df= }}
14. ^{{cite journal|vauthors=Findley KA, Barnes PD, Moran DA, Squier W |title=Shaken Baby Syndrome, Abusive Head Trauma, and Actual Innocence: Getting It Right |journal=Houston Journal of Health Law and Policy |date=April 30, 2012 |ssrn=2048374}}
15. ^{{cite journal|author=Squier W|title="Shaken Baby Syndrome" and Forensic Pathology|journal=Forensic Science, Medicine and Pathology|volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=248–250 |doi=10.1007/s12024-014-9533-z|pmid=24469888|year=2014}}
16. ^{{cite journal|author=Bandak FA|title=Shaken Baby Syndrome: A biomechanical analysis of injury mechanisms|volume=151|issue=1|pages=71–79|date=2005|doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.02.033|pmid=15885948|journal=Forensic Science International}}
17. ^{{Cite journal|author=Margulies S |title=Shaken baby syndrome: a flawed biomechanical analysis |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=164 |issue=2–3 |pages=278–9; author reply 282–3 |date=December 2006 |pmid=16436323 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.12.018|name-list-format=vanc|author2=Prange M|author3=Myers BS|display-authors=3|last4=Maltese|first4=Matthew R.|last5=Ji|first5=Songbai|last6=Ning|first6=Xinguo|last7=Fisher|first7=Jacob|last8=Arbogast|first8=Kristy|last9=Christian|first9=Cindy}}
18. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Rangarajan N, Shams T |title=Re: shaken baby syndrome: a biomechanics analysis of injury mechanisms |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=164 |issue=2–3 |pages=280–1; author reply 282–3 |date=December 2006 |pmid=16497461 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.12.017}}
19. ^{{Cite journal| author=Bandak F | title=Response to the Letter to the Editor | journal=Forensic Science International | volume=157 | issue=1 |date=December 2006 | doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.01.001 | pages=282–3}} which refers to
{{Cite journal|author=Margulies S |title=Shaken baby syndrome: a flawed biomechanical analysis |journal=Forensic Science International |volume=164 |issue=2–3 |pages=278–9; author reply 282–3 |date=December 2006 |pmid=16436323 |doi=10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.12.018|name-list-format=vanc|author2=Prange M|author3=Myers BS|display-authors=3|last4=Maltese|first4=Matthew R.|last5=Ji|first5=Songbai|last6=Ning|first6=Xinguo|last7=Fisher|first7=Jacob|last8=Arbogast|first8=Kristy|last9=Christian|first9=Cindy}}
20. ^{{cite journal | doi=10.2214/AJR.14.14191 |pmid = 25905929|volume=204 |issue = 5| title=Abusive Head Trauma: A Review of the Evidence Base | journal=American Journal of Roentgenology | pages=967–973|year = 2015|last1 = Greeley|first1 = Christopher Spencer}}
21. ^{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/s12024-014-9540-0 |pmid = 24532195| volume=10 |issue = 2| title="Shaken baby syndrome" and forensic pathology | journal=Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology | pages=253–255|year = 2014|last1 = Greeley|first1 = Christopher Spencer}}
22. ^Report questioning shaken baby syndrome seriously unbalanced http://www.aappublications.org/content/36/5/1.2
23. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 {{Cite journal|title=Shaken baby syndrome: rotational cranial injuries-technical report |journal=Pediatrics |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=206–10 |date=July 2001 |pmid=11433079 |doi=10.1542/peds.108.1.206 |authors= American Academy of Pediatrics: Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect}}
24. ^{{Cite web|title=Shaken Baby Syndrome Resources |url=http://www.aao.org/education/library/statements/shaken_baby.cfm#ocular |website= |publisher=American Academy of Ophthalmology |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001032144/http://www.aao.org/education/library/statements/shaken_baby.cfm |archivedate=2006-10-01 |df= }}
25. ^{{cite journal |pmid=23568702 | doi=10.1007/s00234-013-1180-7 | volume=55 | issue=7 | title=Susceptibility weighted imaging depicts retinal hemorrhages in abusive head trauma. | date=Jul 2013 | journal=Neuroradiology | pages=889–93 | pmc=3713254 | author1=Zuccoli G | author2=Panigrahy A | author3=Haldipur A | author4=Willaman D | author5=Squires J | author6=Wolford J | author7=Sylvester C | author8=Mitchell E | author9=Lope LA | author10=Nischal KK | author11=Berger RP}}
26. ^1 {{Cite web| author=Oral R | title=Intentional head trauma in infants: Shaken baby syndrome | publisher=Virtual Children's Hospital |date=August 2003 | url=http://www.vh.org/pediatric/provider/pediatrics/shakenimpactsyndrome/ | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214084615/http://www.vh.org/pediatric/provider/pediatrics/shakenimpactsyndrome/ | archivedate=2005-02-14 | format=Archived | accessdate=2006-10-09}}
27. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Togioka BM, Arnold MA, Bathurst MA, etal | year = 2009 | title = Retinal hemorrhages and shaken baby syndrome: an evidence-based review | url = | journal = J Emerg Med | volume = 37 | issue = 1| pages = 98–106 | doi=10.1016/j.jemermed.2008.06.022| pmid = 19081701 }}
28. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Minns RA, Busuttil A |title=Patterns of presentation of the shaken baby syndrome: Four types of inflicted brain injury predominate |journal=BMJ |volume=328 |issue=7442 |pages=766 |date=March 2004 |pmid=15044297 |pmc=381336 |doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7442.766}}
29. ^{{cite journal|author=Parks, SE |author2=Annest JL |author3=Hill HA |author4=Karch DL |year=2012 |title=Pediatric Abusive Head Trauma: Recommended Definitions for Public Health Surveillance and Research |url=https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/pediatricheadtrauma.html |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208183557/http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/pediatricheadtrauma.html |archivedate=2014-12-08 }}
30. ^Abusive Head Trauma: A New Name for Shaken Baby Syndrome {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103083316/http://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/Abusive-Head-Trauma-A-New-Name-for-Shaken-Baby-Syndrome.aspx |date=2014-11-03 }}
31. ^1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 {{Cite book|url=http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/traumatic-shaking--the-role-of-the-triad-in-medical-investigations-of-suspected-traumatic-shaking/|title=Traumatic shaking – The role of the triad in medical investigations of suspected traumatic shaking|last=|first=|date=2016-10-26|website=www.sbu.se|publisher=Swedish Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Assessment of Social Services|pages=9–15|language=en|access-date=2017-06-08|isbn=978-91-85413-98-0|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606083919/http://www.sbu.se/en/publications/sbu-assesses/traumatic-shaking--the-role-of-the-triad-in-medical-investigations-of-suspected-traumatic-shaking/|archivedate=2017-06-06|df=}}
32. ^1 {{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/law/2016/mar/11/doctor-doubted-shaken-baby-syndrome-mislead-courts-waney-squier|title=Doctor who doubted shaken baby syndrome misled courts, panel rules|last=Booth|first=Robert|date=2016-03-11|work=The Guardian|access-date=2017-06-08|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911134012/https://www.theguardian.com/law/2016/mar/11/doctor-doubted-shaken-baby-syndrome-mislead-courts-waney-squier|archivedate=2016-09-11|df=}}
33. ^Non Accidental Head Injury Cases (NAHI, formerly referred to as Shaken Baby Syndrome Prosecution Approach {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206165646/http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/l_to_o/non_accidental_head_injury_cases/|date=December 6, 2013}}
34. ^{{Cite journal | author = Clemetson CAB | title = Capillary Fragility as a Cause of Substantial Hemorrhage in Infants | journal = Medical Hypotheses and Research | volume = 1 | issue = 2/3 | pages = 121–129 | url = http://www.journal-mhr.com/PDF_Files/vol_1_2/1_2N3_PDFs/1_2N3_5.pdf | date = July 2004 | accessdate = 2009-05-19 | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090304190227/http://www.journal-mhr.com/PDF_Files/vol_1_2/1_2N3_PDFs/1_2N3_5.pdf | archivedate = 2009-03-04 | df = }}
35. ^{{Cite book| author= Johnston, C.S. | title= Ascorbic Acid; Biochemistry and Biomedical Cell Biology | volume=25 | chapter=Chapter 10) The Antihistamine Action of Ascorbic Acid | year=1996 | page=189 | publisher= Plenum Press | isbn=978-0-306-45148-5}}
36. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Majno G, Palade GE, Schoefl GI |title=STUDIES ON INFLAMMATION : II. The Site of Action of Histamine and Serotonin along the Vascular Tree: A Topographic Study |journal=The Journal of Biophysical and Biochemical Cytology |volume=11 |issue= 3|pages=607–26 |date=December 1961 |pmid=14468625 |pmc=2225127 |doi=10.1083/jcb.11.3.607}}
37. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Fung EL, Nelson EA |title=Could Vitamin C deficiency have a role in shaken baby syndrome? |journal=Pediatrics International |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=753–5 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15660885 |doi=10.1111/j.1442-200x.2004.01977.x}}
38. ^{{Cite journal|author=Dettman G |title=Factor "X", sub-clinical scurvy and S.I.D.S. Historical. Part 1 |journal=The Australasian Nurses Journal |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=2–5 |date=March 1978 |pmid=418769}}
39. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kalokerinos A, Dettman G |title=Sudden death in infancy syndrome in Western Australia |journal=The Medical Journal of Australia |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=31–2 |date=July 1976 |pmid=979792}}
40. ^{{Cite book| author=Institute of Medicine (IOM) | title= Adverse Effects of Pertussis and Rubella Vaccines | chapter=Chapter 6 Evidence Concerning Pertussis Vaccines and Other Illnesses and Conditions -- Protracted Inconsolable Crying and Screaming | chapterurl=http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309044995/html/165.html | year=1991 | page=165 | publisher=The National Academies Press | isbn=978-0-309-04499-8}}
41. ^{{Cite journal|author=Lee RV|title=Scurvy: a contemporary historical perspective |journal=Connecticut Medicine |volume=47|issue=10 |pages=629–32, 703–4 |year=1983 |pmid=6354581}}
42. ^{{Cite journal|author1=Weinstein M |author2=Babyn Phil |author3=Zlotkin S |title=An Orange a Day Keeps the Doctor Away: Scurvy in the Year 2000 |journal=Pediatrics |volume=108 |issue=3 |pages=e55 |year=2001 |pmid=11533373 |doi=10.1542/peds.108.3.e55}}
43. ^{{Cite journal|author=Rajakumar K|title=Infantile Scurvy: A Historical Perspective |journal=Pediatrics |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=e76 |year=2001 |pmid=11581484|doi=10.1542/peds.108.4.e76}}
44. ^{{Cite journal|author=Binenbaum G|title=Evaluation of Temporal Association Between Vaccinations and Retinal Hemorrhage in Children|journal=JAMA Ophthalmol|volume=133|issue=11 |pages=1261–1265 |year=2015|quote=Vaccination injections should not be considered a potential cause of retinal hemorrhage in children, and this unsupported theory should not be accepted clinically or in legal proceedings.|doi=10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2015.2868|pmid=26335082|pmc=4910821}}
45. ^{{Cite journal|vauthors=Cushing H, Goodrich JT |title=Reprint of "Concerning Surgical Intervention for the Intracranial Hemorrhages of the New-born" by Harvey Cushing, M.D. 1905 |journal=Child's Nervous System |volume=16 |issue=8 |pages=484–92 |date=August 2000 |pmid=11007498 |doi=10.1007/s003810000255}}
46. ^{{Cite book| author=Williams Obstetrics | title= Diseases and Injuries of the Fetus and Newborn| volume= 20 | chapter=Chapter 20 | year=1997 | pages=997–998 | publisher= Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT | isbn=978-0-8385-9638-8}}
47. ^{{Cite book| author=Williams Obstetrics | title= Diseases and Injuries of the Fetus and Newborn| volume= 22 | chapter=Chapter 29 | year=2005 | pages=649–691 | publisher= McGraw-Hill Companies | isbn=978-0-07-141315-2}}
48. ^{{Cite journal|author=Looney CB |title=Intracranial hemorrhage in asymptomatic neonates: prevalence on MR images and relationship to obstetric and neonatal risk factors |journal=Radiology |volume=242 |issue=2 |pages=535–41 |date=February 2007 |pmid=17179400 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2422060133|name-list-format=vanc|author2=Smith JK|author3=Merck LH|display-authors=3|last4=Wolfe|first4=H. M.|last5=Chescheir|first5=N. C.|last6=Hamer|first6=R. M.|last7=Gilmore|first7=J. H.}}
49. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Allen KA |title=The neonatal nurse's role in preventing abusive head trauma |journal=Advances in Neonatal Care : Official Journal of the National Association of Neonatal Nurses |volume=14 |issue=5 |pages=336–42 |year=2014 |pmid=25137601 |pmc=4139928 |doi=10.1097/ANC.0000000000000117 |type=Review}}
50. ^{{Cite journal|author=David TJ |title=Shaken baby (shaken impact) syndrome: non-accidental head injury in infancy |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=92 |issue=11 |pages=556–61 |date=November 1999 |pmid=10703491 |pmc=1297429|doi=10.1177/014107689909201105 }}
51. ^Integrity in Science: The Case of Dr Norman Guthkelch, ‘Shaken Baby Syndrome’ and Miscarriages of Justice By Dr Lynne Wrennall {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309043634/http://www.argumentcritique.com/uploads/1/0/3/1/10317653/guthkelch_lw.pdf |date=2015-03-09 }}
52. ^{{cite web |url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/54/4/396 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-04-30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100313182616/http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/54/4/396 |archivedate=2010-03-13 |df= }}
53. ^1 {{Cite journal|author=Caffey J |title=On the theory and practice of shaking infants. Its potential residual effects of permanent brain damage and mental retardation |journal=American Journal of Diseases of Children |volume=124 |issue=2 |pages=161–9 |date=August 1972 |pmid=4559532 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.1972.02110140011001}}
54. ^Forensic Science in Criminal Courts: Ensuring Scientific Validity of Feature-Comparison Methods (p. 23) {{cite web |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-12-31 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112213013/https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/PCAST/pcast_forensic_science_report_final.pdf |archivedate=2017-01-12 |df= }}
55. ^Cuellar M. Causal reasoning and data analysis: Problems with the abusive head trauma diagnosis. Law, Probability and Risk, 2017; 16(4): 223–239. doi:10.1093/lpr/mgx011
56. ^Pfeiffer H, et al. External Validation of the PediBIRN Clinical Prediction Rule of Abusive Head Trauma. Pediatrics, 2018; 141(5): e20173674. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-3674
57. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite journal |vauthors=De Leeuw M, Jacobs W |title=Shaken baby syndrome: The classical clinical triad is still valid in recent court rulings |journal=Critical Care |volume=11 |issue=Supplement 2 |page=416 |year=2007 |pmid= |doi=10.1186/cc5576 |url=http://ccforum.com/content/11/S2/P416 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615113052/http://ccforum.com/content/11/S2/P416 |archivedate=2011-06-15 |df= |pmc=4095469 }}
58. ^{{Cite news| title=Shaken baby convictions overturned | url=https://www.theguardian.com/child/story/0,,1533200,00.html | work=Special Reports | date=July 21, 2005 | publisher=Guardian Unlimited | accessdate=2006-10-15}}
59. ^{{Cite news| title=Court of Appeals decision - State of Wisconsin v. Audrey A. Edmonds | url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=wi&vol=2008%5C31696&invol=2 | work=Wisconsin Court Opinions | date=January 31, 2008 | publisher=Findlaw | accessdate=2009-09-25}}
60. ^Keith A. Findley Co‐Director, Wisconsin Innocence Project Clinical Professor, University of Wisconsin Law School Litigating Postconviction Challenges to Shaken Baby Syndrome Convictions {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141215000746/http://www.nacdl.org/uploadedfiles/files/resource_center/topics/post_conviction/findley_presentation.pdf |date=2014-12-15 }}
61. ^1 {{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2011/06/29/137471992/rethinking-shaken-baby-syndrome |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2015-05-30 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150526055135/http://www.npr.org/2011/06/29/137471992/rethinking-shaken-baby-syndrome |archivedate=2015-05-26 |df= }}
62. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.law.uh.edu/hjhlp/volumes/Vol_12_2/Guthkelch.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2013-01-15 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207111213/http://globalwrong.files.wordpress.com/2013/01/guthkelch-an-preface-to-narang-hous-j-health-law-poly-2012.pdf |archivedate=2014-12-07 |df= }}
63. ^{{cite web |url=http://onsbs.com/2014/08/20/conversations-with-dr-a-norman-guthkelch/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2014-09-24 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140919224037/http://onsbs.com/2014/08/20/conversations-with-dr-a-norman-guthkelch/ |archivedate=2014-09-19 |df= }}
64. ^{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000003906982/retro-report-voices-the-lawyer.html?playlistId=1194811622182|title=The Nanny Murder Trial: Retro Report Voices: The Lawyer|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=14 September 2015|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915041225/http://www.nytimes.com/video/us/100000003906982/retro-report-voices-the-lawyer.html?playlistId=1194811622182|archivedate=15 September 2015|df=}}
65. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.mpts-uk.org/static/documents/content/Waney_Marian_Valerie_SQUIER_21_March_2016.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-04-04 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416053904/http://www.mpts-uk.org/static/documents/content/Waney_Marian_Valerie_SQUIER_21_March_2016.pdf |archivedate=2016-04-16 |df= }}
66. ^Oxford doctor Waney Squire vows to fight suspension over 'shaken baby' trial evidence {{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/14469215.Oxford_doctor_struck_off_over_evidence_in__shaken_baby__court_cases_vows_to_fight_suspension/ |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-05-06 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160810201908/http://www.oxfordmail.co.uk/news/14469215.Oxford_doctor_struck_off_over_evidence_in__shaken_baby__court_cases_vows_to_fight_suspension/ |archivedate=2016-08-10 |df= }}
67. ^{{cite |title=Shaken baby sceptic begins appeal |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-37688263 |accessdate=2016-10-24 |publisher=BBC |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025055202/http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-oxfordshire-37688263 |archivedate=2016-10-25 |df= }}
68. ^{{cite |title=Should Waney Squier have been struck off over shaken baby syndrome? |date=17 October 2016 |first=John |last=Sweeney |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/health-37672451 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=2016-10-24 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025051953/http://www.bbc.com/news/health-37672451 |archivedate=2016-10-25 |df= }}
69. ^{{cite web |url=https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/squier-v-gmc-protected-approved-judgment-20160311-2.pdf |title=Case No: CO/2061/2016 Approved Judgement |date=3 November 2016 |accessdate=2016-11-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104205435/https://www.judiciary.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/squier-v-gmc-protected-approved-judgment-20160311-2.pdf |archivedate=2016-11-04 |df= }}
70. ^{{cite web |date= 3 November 2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-37861618 |title=Shaken baby evidence doctor reinstated |publisher=BBC |website=BBC News|accessdate=2016-11-04 |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104130431/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-37861618 |archivedate=2016-11-04 |df= }}

External links

{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB =
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|T74.1}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|995.55}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM =
| MedlinePlus = 007578
| eMedicineSubj =
| eMedicineTopic =
| MeSH =D038642
}}
  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - [https://web.archive.org/web/20141208183557/http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pub/pediatricheadtrauma.html Abusive head trauma]
{{Neurotrauma}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Shaken Baby Syndrome}}

5 : Neurotrauma|Child abuse|Infancy|Syndromes|RTT
随便看

　

开放百科全书收录14589846条英语、德语、日语等多语种百科知识，基本涵盖了大多数领域的百科知识，是一部内容自由、开放的电子版国际百科全书。

　

Copyright © 2023 OENC.NET All Rights Reserved
京ICP备2021023879号 更新时间：2024/11/10 15:07:56