1. Climate
    Global temperatures 

2. Sea level

3. Definition of the Eemian

4. See also

5. References

6. Further reading

7. External links

The Eemian (also called the last interglacial,^[1] Sangamonian, Ipswichian, Mikulin, Kaydaky, penultimate^[2], Valdivia or Riss-Würm) was the interglacial period which began about 130,000 years ago at the end of the Penultimate Glacial Period and ended about 115,000 years ago at the beginning of the Last Glacial Period.^[3] It corresponds to Marine Isotope Stage 5e.^[4] Although sometimes referred to as the "last interglacial" (in the "most recent previous" sense of "last"), it was the second-to-latest interglacial period of the current Ice Age, the most recent being the Holocene which extends to the present day (having followed the last glacial period). The prevailing Eemian climate was, on average, around 1 to 2 degrees Celsius (1.8 to 3.6 Fahrenheit) warmer than that of the Holocene. However, due to global warming, the past few July global temperatures likely surpassed the (long-term average) July temperatures of the Eemian period. During the Eemian, the proportion of {{CO2}} in the atmosphere was about 280 parts per million.^[5]

The Eemian is known as the Ipswichian in the UK, the Mikulin interglacial in Russia, the Valdivia interglacial in Chile and the Riss-Würm interglacial in the Alps. Depending on how a specific publication defines the Sangamonian Stage of North America, the Eemian is equivalent to either all or part of it.

Climate

Global temperatures

The Eemian climate is believed to have been about as stable as that of the Holocene.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Changes in the Earth's orbital parameters from today (greater obliquity and eccentricity, and perihelion), known as Milankovitch cycles, probably led to greater seasonal temperature variations in the Northern Hemisphere.{{Citation needed|date=August 2018}} Although global annual mean temperatures were probably several degrees warmer than today, during summer months, temperatures in the Arctic region were about 2-4 °C higher than today.^[6] The warmest peak of the Eemian was around 125,000 years ago, when forests reached as far north as North Cape, Norway (which is now tundra) well above the Arctic Circle at {{Coord|71|10|21|N|25|47|40|E|}}. Hardwood trees such as hazel and oak grew as far north as Oulu, Finland.

At the peak of the Eemian, the Northern Hemisphere winters were generally warmer and wetter than now, though some areas were actually slightly cooler than today. The hippopotamus was distributed as far north as the rivers Rhine and Thames.^[7] Trees grew as far north as southern Baffin Island in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago: currently, the northern limit is further south at Kuujjuaq in northern Quebec. Coastal Alaska was warm enough during the summer due to reduced sea ice in the Arctic Ocean to allow Saint Lawrence Island (now tundra) to have boreal forest, although inadequate precipitation caused a reduction in the forest cover in interior Alaska and Yukon Territory despite warmer conditions.^[8] The prairie-forest boundary in the Great Plains of the United States lay further west near Lubbock, Texas, whereas the current boundary is near Dallas. The period closed as temperatures steadily fell to conditions cooler and drier than the present, with a 468-year-long aridity pulse in central Europe 116,000 BC,^[9] and by 112,000 BC, a glacial period had returned.

Kaspar et al. (GRL, 2005) performed a comparison of a coupled general circulation model (GCM) with reconstructed Eemian temperatures for Europe. Central Europe (north of the Alps) was found to be {{convert|1|-|2|C-change}} warmer than present; south of the Alps, conditions were 1–2 °C cooler than today. The model (generated using observed greenhouse gas concentrations and Eemian orbital parameters) generally reproduces these observations, leading them to conclude that these factors are enough to explain the Eemian temperatures.^[10]

A 2018 study based on soil samples from Sokli in northern Finland identified abrupt cold spells ca. 120,000 years ago caused by shifts in the North Atlantic Current, lasting hundreds of years and causing temperature drops of a few degrees and vegetation changes in these regions.^[11]

Sea level

Sea level at peak was probably {{convert|6|to|9|m|abbr=off}} higher than today,^[13][14] with Greenland contributing {{cvt|0.6|to|3.5|m|ft}},^[15] thermal expansion and mountain glaciers contributing up to {{cvt|1|m|ft}},^[16] and an uncertain contribution from Antarctica.^[17] Recent research on marine sediment cores offshore of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet suggest that the sheet melted during the Eemian, and that ocean waters rose as fast as 2.5 meters per century.^[18] Global mean sea surface temperatures are thought to have been higher than in the Holocene, but not by enough to explain the rise in sea level through thermal expansion alone, and so melting of polar ice caps must also have occurred. Because of the sea level drop since the Eemian, exposed fossil coral reefs are common in the tropics, especially in the Caribbean and along the Red Sea coastlines. These reefs often contain internal erosion surfaces showing significant sea level instability during the Eemian.

A 2007 study found evidence that the Greenland ice core site Dye 3 was glaciated during the Eemian,^[19] which implies that Greenland could have contributed at most {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} to sea level rise.^[20][21] Scandinavia was an island due to the inundation of vast areas of northern Europe and the West Siberian Plain.

Definition of the Eemian

Van Voorthuysen (1958) described the foraminifera from the type site, whereas Zagwijn (1961) published the palynology, providing a subdivision of this stage into pollen stages. At the end of the 20th century, the type site was re-investigated using old and new data in a multi-disciplinary approach (Cleveringa et al., 2000). At the same time a parastratotype was selected in the Amsterdam glacial basin in the Amsterdam-Terminal borehole and was the subject of a multidisciplinary investigation (Van Leeuwen, et al., 2000). These authors also published a U/Th age for late Eemian deposits from this borehole of 118,200 ± 6,300 years ago. A historical review of Dutch Eemian research is provided by Bosch, Cleveringa and Meijer, 2000.

See also

• Marine Isotope Stage 11
• Paleoclimatology
• Timeline of glaciation

References

Further reading

• {{cite journal |last=Bosch |first=J. H. A. |author2=Cleveringa, P. |author3=Meijer, T. |year=2000 |title=The Eemian stage in the Netherlands: history, character and new research |journal={{lang|nl|Geologie en Mijnbouw}} / Netherlands Journal of Geosciences |volume=79 |issue=2/3 |pages=135–145 |id= |url=http://www.njgonline.nl/publish/articles/000085/article.pdf |accessdate= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222014957/http://www.njgonline.nl/publish/articles/000085/article.pdf |archivedate=2009-12-22 |df= |doi=10.1017/S0016774600021673 }}
• Cleveringa, P., Meijer, T., van Leeuwen, R.J.W., de Wolf, H., Pouwer, R., Lissenberg T. and Burger, A.W., 2000. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/28713/article.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y The Eemian stratotype locality at Amersfoort in the central Netherlands: a re-evaluation of old and new data]. Geologie & Mijnbouw / Netherlands Journal of Geosciences, 79(2/3): 197–216.
• Harting, P., 1875. Le système Éemien Archives Néerlandaises Sciences Exactes et Naturelles de la Societé Hollandaise des Sciences (Harlem), 10: 443–454.
• Harting, P., 1886. Het Eemdal en het Eemstelsel Album der Natuur, 1886: 95–100.
• {{cite journal |last=Overpeck |first=Jonathan T. |year=2006 |title=Paleoclimatic Evidence for Future Ice-Sheet Instability and Rapid Sea-Level Rise |journal=Science |volume=311 |issue=5768 |pages=1747–1750 |doi=10.1126/science.1115159 |url= |accessdate= |pmid=16556837 |bibcode = 2006Sci...311.1747O |display-authors=etal}}
• Lorié, J., 1887. Contributions a la géologie des Pays Bas III. Le Diluvium plus récent ou sableux et le système Eémien Archives Teyler, Ser. II, Vol. III: 104–160.
• {{ cite journal | last = Müller | first = Ulrich C. | year = 2005 | title = Cyclic climate fluctuations during the last interglacial in central Europe | journal = Geology | volume = 33 | issue = 6 | pages = 449–452 | doi = 10.1130/G21321.1 | url = | accessdate = |bibcode = 2005Geo....33..449M |display-authors=etal}}
• Spaink, G., 1958. De Nederlandse Eemlagen, I: Algemeen overzicht. Wetenschappelijke Mededelingen Koninklijke Nederlandse Natuurhistorische Vereniging 29, 44 pp.
• Van Leeuwen, R.J., Beets, D., Bosch, J.H.A., Burger, A.W., Cleveringa, P., van Harten, D., Herngreen, G.F.W., Langereis, C.G., Meijer, T., Pouwer, R., de Wolf, H., 2000. [https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/28714/article.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y Stratigraphy and integrated facies analysis of the Saalian and Eemian sediments in the Amsterdam-Terminal borehole, the Netherlands]. Geologie en Mijnbouw / Netherlands Journal of Geosciences 79, 161–196.
• Van Voorthuysen, J.H., 1958. Foraminiferen aus dem Eemien (Riss-Würm-Interglazial) in der Bohrung Amersfoort I (Locus Typicus). Mededelingen Geologische Stichting NS 11(1957), 27–39.
• Zagwijn, W.H., 1961. Vegetation, climate and radiocarbon datings in the Late Pleistocene of the Netherlands. Part 1: Eemian and Early Weichselian. Mededelingen Geologische Stichting NS 14, 15–45.

External links

• www.foraminifera.eu Foraminifera (Microfossils) of the Eemian Interglacial

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