“1912 Lawrence textile strike”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

The Lawrence textile strike, also known as the Bread and Roses strike, was a strike of immigrant workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts, in 1912 led by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Prompted by a two-hour pay cut corresponding to a new law shortening the workweek for women, the strike spread rapidly through the town, growing to more than twenty thousand workers and involving nearly every mill in Lawrence.^[2] Starting January 1, 1912, the Massachusetts government started to enforce a law that allowed women to work a maximum of 54 hours, rather than 56 hours. Ten days later, they found out that pay had been reduced along with the cut in hours.^[3]

The strike united workers from more than 40 different nationalities.^[4] Carried on throughout a brutally cold winter, the strike lasted more than two months, from January to March, defying the assumptions of conservative trade unions within the American Federation of Labor (AFL) that immigrant, largely female and ethnically divided workers could not be organized. In late January, when a striker, Anna LoPizzo, was killed by police during a protest, IWW organizers Joseph Ettor and Arturo Giovannitti were framed and arrested on charges of being accessories to the murder.^[4]

IWW leaders Bill Haywood and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn came to Lawrence to run the strike. Together they masterminded its signature move, sending hundreds of the strikers' hungry children to sympathetic families in New York, New Jersey, and Vermont. The move drew widespread sympathy, especially after police stopped a further exodus, leading to violence at the Lawrence train station.^[4] Congressional hearings followed, resulting in exposure of shocking conditions in the Lawrence mills and calls for investigation of the "wool trust." Mill owners soon decided to settle the strike, giving workers in Lawrence and throughout New England raises of up to 20 percent. Within a year, however, the IWW had largely collapsed in Lawrence.^[4]

The Lawrence strike is often referred to as the "Bread and Roses" strike. It has also been called the "strike for three loaves".^[5] The phrase "bread and roses" actually preceded the strike, appearing in a poem by James Oppenheim published in The American Magazine in December 1911.^[6] A 1915 labor anthology, The Cry for Justice: An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest by Upton Sinclair, attributed the phrase to the Lawrence strike, and the association stuck.^[7]^[8]

A popular rallying cry from the poem that has interwoven with the memory of the strike:^[3]

Background

Founded in 1845, Lawrence was a flourishing but deeply-troubled textile city. By 1900, mechanization and the deskilling of labor in the textile industry enabled factory owners to eliminate skilled workers and to employ large numbers of unskilled immigrant workers, mostly women. Work in a textile mill took place at a grueling pace, and the labor was repetitive and dangerous. In addition, a number of children under 14 worked in the mills.^[13] Half of the workers in the four Lawrence mills of the American Woolen Company, the leading employer in the industry and the town, were females between 14 and 18.

By 1912, the Lawrence mills at maximum capacity employed about 32,000 men, women, and children.^[9] Conditions had worsened even more in the decade before the strike. The introduction of the two-loom system in the woolen mills led to a dramatic increase in the pace of work. The greater production enabled the factory owners to lay off large numbers of workers. Those who kept their jobs earned, on average, $8.76 for 56 hours of work and $9.00 for 60 hours of work.^[3]^[10]^[11]

The workers in Lawrence lived in crowded and dangerous apartment buildings, often with many families sharing each apartment. Many families survived on bread, molasses, and beans; as one worker testified before the March 1912 congressional investigation of the Lawrence strike, "When we eat meat it seems like a holiday, especially for the children." Half of children died before they were six, and 36% of the adults who worked in the mill died before they were 25. The average life expectancy was 39.^[12]^[13]^[14]^[15]

The mills and the community were divided along ethnic lines: most of the skilled jobs were held by native-born workers of English, Irish, and German descent, whereas French-Canadian, Italian, Slavic, Hungarian, Portuguese, and Syrian immigrants made up most of the unskilled workforce. Several thousand skilled workers belonged, in theory at least, to the American Federation of Labor-affiliated United Textile Workers, but only a few hundred paid dues. The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) had also been organizing for five years among workers in Lawrence but also had only a few hundred actual members.^[4]

Strike

On January 1, 1912, a new labor law took effect in Massachusetts reducing the working week of 56 hours to 54 hours for women and children. Workers opposed the reduction if it reduced their weekly home pay. The first two weeks of 1912, the unions tried to learn how the owners of the mills would deal with the new law.^[16] On January 11, a group of Polish women textile workers in Lawrence discovered that their employer at the Everett Mill had reduced about $0.32 from their total wages and walked out.

On January 12, workers in the Washington Mill of the American Woolen Company also found that their wages had been cut. Prepared for the events by weeks of discussion, they walked out, calling "short pay, all out."^[17]

The city responded to the strike by ringing the city's alarm bell for the first time in its history; the mayor ordered a company of the local militia to patrol the streets. When mill owners turned fire hoses on the picketers gathered in front of the mills,^[20] they responded by throwing ice at the plants, breaking a number of windows. The court sentenced 24 workers to a year in jail for throwing ice; as the judge stated, "The only way we can teach them is to deal out the severest sentences."^[21] Governor Eugene Foss then ordered out the state militia and state police. Mass arrests followed.^[22]^[23]

At the same time, the United Textile Workers (UTW) attempted to break the strike by claiming to speak for the workers of Lawrence. The striking operatives ignored the UTW, as the IWW had successfully united the operatives behind ethnic-based leaders, who were members of the strike committee and able to communicate Ettor's message to avoid violence at demonstrations. Ettor did not consider intimidating operatives who were trying to enter the mills as breaking the peace.

The IWW was successful, even with AFL-affiliated operatives, as it defended the grievances of all operatives from all the mills. Conversely, the AFL and the mill owners preferred to keep negotiations between separate mills and their own operatives. However, in a move that frustrated the UTW, Oliver Christian, the national secretary of the Loomfixers Association and an AFL affiliate itself, said he believed John Golden, the Massachusetts UTW president, was a detriment to the cause of labor.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} That statement and missteps by William Madison Wood quickly shifted public sentiment to favor the strikers.^[24]

A local undertaker and a member of the Lawrence school board attempted to frame the strike leadership by planting dynamite in several locations in town a week after the strike began. He was fined $500 and released without jail time. Later, William M. Wood, the president of the American Woolen Company, was shown to have made an unexplained large payment to the defendant shortly before the dynamite was found.^[25]^[26]^[27]

The authorities later charged Ettor and Giovannitti as accomplices to murder for the death of striker Anna LoPizzo,^[28] who was likely shot by the police. Ettor and Giovannitti had been {{convert|3|mi|km|abbr=on}} away, where they spoke to another group of workers. They and a third defendant, who had not even heard of either Ettor or Giovannitti at the time of his arrest, were held in jail for the duration of the strike and several months thereafter.^[29] The authorities declared martial law,^[30] banned all public meetings, and called out 22 more militia companies to patrol the streets.

The IWW responded by sending Bill Haywood, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and a number of other organizers to Lawrence. Haywood participated little in the daily affairs of the strike. Instead, he set out for other New England textile towns in an effort to raise funds for the strikers in Lawrence, which proved very successful. Other tactics established were an efficient system of relief committees, soup kitchens, and food distribution stations, and volunteer doctors provided medical care. The IWW raised funds on a nationwide basis to provide weekly benefits for strikers and dramatized the strikers' needs by arranging for several hundred children to go to supporters' homes in New York City for the duration of the strike. When city authorities tried to prevent another 100 children from going to Philadelphia on February 24 by sending police and the militia to the station to detain the children and arrest their parents, the police began clubbing both the children and their mothers and dragged them off to be taken away by truck; one pregnant mother miscarried. The press, there to photograph the event, reported extensively on the attack. Moreover, when the women and children were taken to the Police Court, most of them refused to pay the fines levied and opted for a jail cell, some with babies in arms.^[31]

The police action against the mothers and children of Lawrence attracted the attention of the nation, in particular that of Helen Herron Taft, the wife of William Howard Taft. Soon, both the House and the Senate set out to investigate the strike. In the early days of March, a special House Committee heard testimony from some of the strikers' children, various city, state and union officials. In the end, both houses published reports detailing the conditions at Lawrence.^[32]^[11]

The national attention had an effect: the owners offered a 5% pay raise on March 1, but the workers rejected it. American Woolen Company agreed to most of the strikers' demands on March 12, 1912. The strikers had demanded an end to the Premium System in which a portion of their earnings were subject to month-long production and attendance standards. The mill owners' concession was to change the award of the premium from once every four weeks to once every two weeks. The rest of the manufacturers followed by the end of the month; other textile companies throughout New England, anxious to avoid a similar confrontation, then followed suit.

The children who had been taken in by supporters in New York City came home on March 30.

Aftermath

Ettor and Giovanniti, both members of IWW, remained in prison for months after the strike was over.^[3] Haywood threatened a general strike to demand their freedom, with the cry "Open the jail gates or we will close the mill gates." The IWW raised $60,000 for their defense and held demonstrations and mass meetings throughout the country in their support; the Boston authorities arrested all of the members of the Ettor and Giovannitti Defense Committee. Then, 15,000 Lawrence workers went on strike for one day on September 30 to demand the release of Ettor and Giovannitti. Swedish and French workers proposed a boycott of woolen goods from the US and a refusal to load ships going there, and Italian supporters of the Giovannitti men rallied in front of the US consulate in Rome.^[42]

In the meantime, Ernest Pitman—l, a Lawrence building contractor who had done extensive work for the American Woolen Company, confessed to a district attorney that he had attended a meeting in the Boston offices of Lawrence textile companies, where the plan to frame the union by planting dynamite had been made. Pitman committed suicide shortly thereafter when he was subpoenaed to testify. Wood, the American Woolen Company owner, was formally exonerated.^[33]^[34]

When the trial of Ettor and Giovannitti, as well as a third defendant, Giuseppe Caruso, accused of firing the shot that killed the picketer, began in September 1912 in Salem before Judge Joseph F. Quinn, the three defendants were kept in steel cages in the courtroom. All witnesses testified that Ettor and Giovannitti were miles away and that Caruso, the third defendant, was at home and eating supper at the time of the killing.^[29]^[35]

Ettor and Giovannitti both delivered closing statements at the end of the two-month trial. In Ettor's closing statement, he turned and faced the District Attorney:

The strikers, however, lost nearly all of the gains they had won in the next few years. The IWW, disdaining written contracts as encouraging workers to abandon the daily class struggle, thus left the mill owners to chisel away at the improvements in wages and working conditions, to fire union activists, and to install labor spies to keep an eye on workers. The more persistent owners laid off further employees during a depression in the industry.^[35]

By then, the IWW had turned its attention to supporting the silk industry workers in Paterson, New Jersey. The Paterson Silk Strike of 1913 was defeated.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Casualties

Other

On February 9, 2019, Senator Elizabeth Warren officially announced her candidacy for President of the United States at the site of the strike.^[46]^[47]

See also

References

1. ^{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924054583020|title=Report on strike of textile workers in Lawrence, Mass., in 1912|last=United States. Bureau of Labor|first=|last2=Neill|first2=Charles Patrick|date=1912|publisher=Washington, Govt. print. off.|others=Cornell University Library|year=|isbn=|location=|page=9}}
2. ^{{cite news|ref=harv|last1=Sibley|first1=Frank P.|newspaper=The Boston Daily Globe|title=Lawrence's Great Strike Reviewed: Cost $3,000,000, Lasted Nine Weeks—27,000 Workers Out|date=March 17, 1912|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/501968425.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Mar+17%2C+1912&author=Sibley%2C+Frank+P&pub=Boston+Daily+Globe+%281872-1922%29&desc=LAWRENCE%27S+GREAT+STRIKE+REVIEWED|subscription=yes|quote=Tomorrow morning ends officially the strike of the textile operatives at Lawrence, in nearly all the mills.}}
3. ^¹²³{{cite web|url=https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/lawrence-ma-factory-workers-strike-bread-and-roses-us-1912|title=Lawrence, MA factory workers strike "for Bread and Roses," U.S. 1912|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=}}
4. ^¹²³⁴{{cite book|last1=Weir|first1=Robert E.|title=Workers in America: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598847185|pages=418–420|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Feb0w1622soC&pg=PA419}}
5. ^{{cite book|last1=Milkman|first1=Ruth|authorlink1=Ruth Milkman|title=Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136247682|page=67|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1G8FTzMONIC&pg=PT67}}
6. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JcfQAAAAMAAJ|title=American Magazine|last=Oppenheim|first=James|date=December 1911|publisher=Colver Publishing House|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=214|language=en}}
7. ^{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d8gRAAAAIAAJ|title=The Cry for Justice: An Anthology of the Literature of Social Protest ...|last=Sinclair|first=Upton|date=1915|publisher=Sinclair|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=247|language=en}}
8. ^{{cite journal|last=Zwick|first=Jim|title=Behind the Song: Bread and Roses|journal=Sing Out! The Folk Song Magazine|year=2003|volume=46|pages=92–93|issn=0037-5624|oclc=474160863}}
9. ^{{cite book |last=Foner |first= Philip|authorlink=Philip S. Foner|title= History of the Labor Movement in the United States, vol. 4 |year=1965 |publisher= International Publishers|location=New York |isbn= |lccn=47-19381|page=307}}
10. ^{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Forrant|first1=Robert|title=The Great Lawrence Textile Strike of 1912: New Scholarship on the Bread & Roses Strike|publisher=Baywood Publishing|date=2014|isbn=9780895038647|url=http://baywood.com/intro/BRS_Look.pdf|page=4}}
11. ^¹{{cite book|last1=Neill|first1=Charles P.|authorlink=Charles P. Neill|title=Report on Strike of Textile Workers in Lawrence, Mass. in 1912|date=1912|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924054583020|page=19}}
12. ^Neill Report (1912), "Housing and Rents", pp. 23–25
13. ^{{cite book|last1=Wertheimer|first1=Barbara M.|authorlink=Barbara Wertheimer|title=We were there: the story of working women in America|date=1977|publisher=Pantheon Books|isbn=9780394495903|page=358}}
14. ^Forrant (2014), p. 4
15. ^¹{{cite book|ref=harv|last1=Moran|first1=William|title=The Belles of New England: The Women of the Textile Mills and the Families Whose Wealth They Wove|chapter=Fighting for Roses|date=2002|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9780312301835|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htr3xT8dDvEC&pg=PA219|page=183|quote=Elizabeth Shapleigh, a physician in the city, made a mortality study among mill workers and found that one-third of them, victims of the lint-filled air of the mills, died before reaching the age of 25.}}
16. ^{{cite book |last=Watson|first= Bruce|title=Bread & Roses: Mills, Migrants, and the Struggle for the American Dream |year=2005|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York |page=12}}
17. ^{{cite journal |last=Ross|first= Robert F.S. |date=March 2013 |title=Bread and Roses: Women Workers and the Struggle for Dignity and Respect | journal= Working USA: The Journal of Labor & Society |publisher=Immanuel News and Wiley Periodicals, Inc. |volume=16 |pages=59–68}}
18. ^Watson (2005), p. 59
19. ^Watson (2005), p. 71
20. ^{{cite book|last1=Forrant|first1=Robert|title=Lawrence and the 1912 Bread and Roses Strike|date=2013|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9781439643846|page=44|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4aNpBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44}} (See photograph)
21. ^Watson (2005), p. 55
22. ^{{cite news|title=FOSS URGES ARMISTICE. Asks Strikers to Return and Mill Owners to Pay Old Wages|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1912/01/30/archives/foss-urges-armistice-asks-strikers-to-return-and-mill-owners-to-pay.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=January 29, 1912}}
23. ^Neill Report, p. 15
24. ^{{cite book|last1=Ayers|first1=Edward L.|authorlink1=Edward L. Ayers|title=American Passages: A History of the United States|date=2008|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=9780547166292|page=616|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbXS5-4QGAUC&pg=PA616}}
25. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=KIih1OeJo48C&pg=PA222 Watson (2006), pp. 109–110, 222, 249–250]
26. ^{{cite news|title=ON TRIAL FOR 'PLANT' IN LAWRENCE STRIKE; Wm. Wood, Boston Manufacturer, and Others Face Jury in Dynamite Case|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1913/05/20/archives/on-trial-for-plant-in-lawrence-strike-wm-wood-boston-manufacturer.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=May 20, 1913}}
27. ^{{cite news|title=Approval In Wood's Name|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/502229304.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=May+24%2C+1913&author=&pub=Boston+Daily+Globe+%281872-1922%29&desc=APPROVAL+IN+WOOD%27S+NAME|newspaper=The Boston Daily Globe|date=May 24, 1913|subscription=yes}}
28. ^The I.W.W.: Its First Seventy Years, Fred W. Thompson & Patrick Murfin, 1976, page 56.
29. ^¹{{cite news|title=Lawrence Police Break Up Attempt at Parade|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/502121823.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Nov+27%2C+1912&author=&pub=Boston+Daily+Globe+%281872-1922%29&desc=LAWRENCE+POLICE+BREAK+UP+ATTEMPT+AT+PARADE|newspaper=The Boston Daily Globe|date=November 27, 1912|subscription=yes|quote=All three, after imprisonment of nearly ten months, are now free.}}
30. ^Forrant (2013), p. 50
31. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=KIih1OeJo48C&pg=PA291 Watson, p. 291 (see headlines)]; see also [https://books.google.com/books?id=KIih1OeJo48C&pg=PA186 p. 186]
32. ^{{cite book|title=The strike at Lawrence, Mass.: Hearings before the Committee on Rules of the House of Representatives on House Resolutions 409 and 433, March 2–7, 1912|date=1912|url=http://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001432313|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office}}
33. ^Forrant (2014), p. 41
34. ^{{cite news|title=Wood Found Not Guilty By Jury|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/502270838.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Jun+8%2C+1913&author=&pub=Boston+Daily+Globe+%281872-1922%29&desc=WOOD+FOUND+NOT+GUILTY+BY+JURY|newspaper=The Boston Daily Globe|date=June 8, 1913|subscription=yes|quote=An interesting problem growing out of the trial, which remains unsettled, is the charge by Morris Shuman, one of the jurors, that someone tried to bribe him... telling him that he could get a good job with the American Woolen Company or $200 if he would 'vote right.'}}
35. ^¹²{{cite book|last1=Kornbluh|first1=Joyce L.|title=Rebel Voices: An IWW Anthology|date=2011|publisher=PM Press|isbn=9781604864830|pages=160, 163|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n2ATBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA163}}
36. ^{{cite book |last=Ebert|first= Justus|title= The Trial of a New Society |year=1913|publisher= I.W.W.|location=Cleveland |page=38}}
37. ^{{cite news|title=ACQUITTED, THEY KISSED.; Ettor and Giovannitti, and Caruso Thanked Judge and Jury|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1912/11/27/archives/acquitted-they-kissed-ettor-giovannitti-and-caruso-thanked-judge.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 27, 1912}}
38. ^{{cite web|title=Bread and Roses Strike of 1912: Two Months in Lawrence, Massachusetts, that Changed Labor History: Remembering the Fallen|url=http://dp.la/exhibitions/exhibits/show/breadandroses/end/remembering|website=Digital Public Library of America}}
39. ^{{cite book|last1=Arnesen|first1=Eric|title=Encyclopedia of U.S. Labor and Working-class History, Volume 1|date=2007|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9780415968263|pages=793–794|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zEWsZ81Bd3YC&pg=PA793}}
40. ^Neill Report (1912), p. 44
41. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=4aNpBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 Forrant (2013), p. 69] (see photograph)
42. ^{{cite news|last1=Sibley|first1=Frank P.|title=DEAD NOW NUMBER TWO—ETTOR AND HIS RIGHT HAND MAN ARRESTED ON MURDER CHARGE Each Accused of Being Accessory To Killing of Lopizzo Woman. State Police Take Them in Custody in Middle of Night and Bail is Refused. John Ramey, Syrian Youth, Bayoneted in Back By Soldier, Dies of His Wounds.|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/501862405.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Jan+31%2C+1912&author=Sibley%2C+Frank+P&pub=Boston+Daily+Globe+%281872-1922%29&desc=DEAD+NOW+NUMBER+TWO--ETTOR+AND+HIS+RIGHT+HAND+MAN+ARRESTED+ON+MURDER+CHARGE|newspaper=The Boston Daily Globe|date=January 31, 1912|subscription=yes}}
43. ^Neill Report (1912), p. 45
44. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=KIih1OeJo48C&pg=PA232 Watson (2006), p. 232]
45. ^{{cite news|last1=Cole|first1=Caroline L.|title=Lawrence Strike Hero Brought Out of History's Shadows|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405485541.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Sep+1%2C+2002&author=Cole%2C+Caroline+Louise&pub=Boston+Globe&desc=LAWRENCE+STRIKE+HERO+BROUGHT+OUT+OF+HISTORY%27S+SHADOWS|newspaper=The Boston Globe|date=September 1, 2002|subscription=yes}}
46. ^{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/09/us/politics/elizabeth-warren-2020.html|title=Elizabeth Warren Formally Announces 2020 Presidential Bid in Lawrence, Mass.|last=Taylor|first=Kate|date=2019-02-09|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-02-10|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}
47. ^{{cite web|last=Tennant |first=Paul |url=https://www.newburyportnews.com/off-and-running-warren-launches-presidential-bid-in-lawrence/article_7cfdff77-88ea-5e8b-8d52-63ca9cdd3149.html |title=Off and running: Warren launches presidential bid in Lawrence |publisher=newburyportnews.com |date=2019-02-04 |accessdate=2019-02-11}}