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词条 Assamese language
释义

  1. History

  2. Geographical distribution

     Official status 

  3. Phonology

      Consonant clusters   Alveolar stops  Voiceless velar fricative  Velar nasal  Vowel inventory 

  4. Writing system

  5. Morphology and grammar

     Negativization process  Classifiers  Nominalization  Grammatical cases  Pronouns  Tense  Relationship suffixes 

  6. Dialects

     Regional dialects  Comparison  Samples  Non-regional dialects 

  7. Literature

  8. Sample text

  9. See also

  10. Notes

  11. References

  12. External links

{{cleanup HTML|date=February 2019}} {{About|modern Indo-Aryan language|old Assamese language|Kamarupi Prakrit|the fictional character|Athena Asamiya}}{{EngvarB|date=May 2017}}{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}}{{Infobox language
| name = Assamese
| altname = Asamiya[1][2]
| pronunciation = {{IPA-as|ɔxomia|}}
| nativename =
| image = Oxomiya in Oxomiya Lipi.svg
| imagesize = 200px
| imagecaption = The word Ôxômiya ('Assamese') in Assamese script
| states = India
| region = Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland[3]
| ethnicity = Assamese people
| speakers = {{sigfig|15.311|2}} million
| date = 2011 census
| ref = [4]
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = Indo-Iranian
| fam3 = Indo-Aryan
| fam4 = Eastern
| fam5 = Bengali–Assamese
| script = Eastern Nagari (Assamese)
Ahom script[5] (historical, rare)
Assamese Braille

| nation = {{IND}} (Assam)
| agency = Asam Sahitya Sabha (literature/rhetorical congress of Assam)
| dia1 = Eastern, Central, Kamrupi, Goalpariya
| map =
| mapcaption =
| iso1 = as
| iso2 = asm
| iso3 = asm
| glotto = assa1263
| glottorefname = Assamese
| lingua = 59-AAF-w
| notice = Indic
| notice2 = IPA
}}{{Contains Indic text}}{{Contains Asamiya text}}Assamese ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|s|ə|ˈ|m|iː|z}};[6] also Asamiya)[7][8][9] is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Assam, where it is an official language. It is the easternmost Indo-European language, spoken by over 15 million speakers,[10] and serves as a lingua franca in the region.[11]

Nefamese is an Assamese-based pidgin used in Arunachal Pradesh and Nagamese, an Assamese-based Creole language is widely used in Nagaland. The Rajbangshi dialect of Rangpur division of Bangladesh and Cooch Behar and Jalpaiguri districts of India are linguistically closer to Assamese, though the speakers identify with the Bengali culture and the literary language.[12] In the past, it was the court language of the Ahom kingdom from the 17th century.

Along with other Eastern Indo-Aryan languages, Assamese evolved at least before 7th century CE[13] from the middle Indo-Aryan Magadhi Prakrit, which developed from dialects similar to, but in some ways more archaic than Vedic Sanskrit.[14]

Its sister languages include Angika, Bengali, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Chakma, Chittagonian, Hajong, Rajbangsi, Maithili, Rohingya and Sylheti. It is written in the Assamese script, an abugida system, from left to right, with a large number of typographic ligatures.

History

Assamese originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, though the exact nature of its origin and growth is not clear yet.[16] It is generally believed that Assamese (Assam) and the Kamatapuri lects (Cooch Bihar and Assam) derive from the Kamarupi dialect of Eastern Magadhi Prakrit[17] by keeping to the north of the Ganges;[18] though some authors contest a close connection of Assamese with Magadhi Prakrit.[19] The Indo-Aryan language in Kamarupa had differentiated by the 7th-century, before it did in Bengal or Orissa.[20] These changes were likely due to non-Indo-Aryan speakers adopting the language.[21][22]{{Sfn|Moral|1997|pp=43-53}} The evidence of the newly differentiated language is found in the Prakritisms of the Kamarupa inscriptions.[23]{{Sfn|Medhi|1988|pp=67–63}}

The earliest forms of Assamese in literature are found in the ninth-century Buddhist verses called Charyapada, and in 12-14th century works of Ramai Pundit (Sunya Puran), Boru Chandidas (Krishna Kirtan), Sukur Mamud (Gopichandrar Gan), Durllava Mullik (Gobindachandrar Git) and Bhavani Das (Mainamatir Gan). In these works, Assamese features coexist with features from other Modern Indian Languages.

A fully distinguished literary form (poetry) appeared first in the fourteenth century— in the courts of the Kamata kingdom and in the courts of an eastern Kachari king where Madhav Kandali translated the Ramayana into Assamese (Saptakanda Ramayana). From the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, songs – Borgeets, dramas – Ankiya Naat and the first prose writings (by Bhattadeva) were composed. The literary language moved to the court of the Ahom kingdom in the seventeenth century,{{Sfn|Guha|1983|p=9}} where it became the state language. This period saw the widespread development of standardized prose infused with colloquial forms in Buranjis.

According to {{Harvcoltxt|Goswami|2003}}, this included "the colloquial prose of religious biographies, the archaic prose of magical charms, the conventional prose of utilitarian literature on medicine, astrology, arithmetic, dance and music, and above all the standardized prose of the Buranjis.{{Sfn|Goswami|2003|p=434}} The literary language, having become infused with the eastern idiom, became the standard literary form in the nineteenth century, when the British adopted it for state purposes. As the political and commercial center shifted to Guwahati after the mid-twentieth century, the literary form moved away from the eastern variety to take its current form.

Geographical distribution

Assamese is native to Brahmaputra Valley consisting of western and eastern Assam. It is also spoken in states of Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland. Presence of Assamese script can be found in Rakhine state of present Myanmar. Pashupati temple in Nepal also have inscription in Assamese showing its influence and prosperity in the past. There are also significant Assamese-speaking diaspora worldwide.[24][25][26][27]

Official status

Assamese is the official language of Assam, and one of the 23 official languages recognised by the Republic of India. The Assam Secretariat functions in Assamese.[28]

Phonology

The Assamese phonemic inventory consists of eight vowels, ten diphthongs, and twenty-three consonants (including two semivowels).[29]

Vowels
FrontCentralBack
IPAROMScriptIPAROMScriptIPAROMScript
Closei}}ias|ই/ঈ}}u}}uas|উ/ঊ}}
Near-closeʊ/o}}ú/o'as|ও}}
Close-mide}}éas|এʼ}}o}}óas|অʼ}}
Open-midɛ}}eas|এ}}ɔ}}oas|অ}}
Opena}}aas|আ}}
Diphthongs
aiu
ɔɔi}}
aai}}au}}
iiu}}
uua}}ui}}
eei}}eu}}
ooi}}ou}}
Consonants
LabialAlveolarDorsalGlottal
IPAROMScriptIPAROMScriptIPAROMScriptIPAROMScript
Nasalm}}mas|ম}}n}}nas|ন/ণ}}ŋ}}ngas|ঙ/ং}}
Stopvoicelessp}}pas|প}}t}}tas|ত/ট}}k}}kas|ক}}
aspiratedpʰ}}phas|ফ}}tʰ}}thas|থ/ঠ}}kʰ}}khas|খ}}
voicedb}}bas|ব}}d}}das|দ/ড}}ɡ}}gas|গ}}
murmuredbʱ}}bhas|ভ}}dʱ}}dhas|ধ/ঢ}}ɡʱ}}ghas|ঘ}}
Fricativevoicelesss}}sas|চ/ছ}}x}}xas|শ/ষ/স}}ɦ}}has|হ}}
voicedz}}zas|জ/ঝ/য}}
Approximantcentralw}}was|ৱ}}ɹ}}ras|ৰ}}j}}yas|য়/্য (য)}}
laterall}}las|ল}}

Consonant clusters

{{Main article|Assamese consonant clusters}}

Consonant clusters in Assamese include thirty-three pure consonant letters in the Assamese alphabet. Each letter represents a single sound with an inherent vowel, the short vowel {{IPAslink|ɔ}}.

The first twenty-five consonants letters are called "sparxa barna" {{Pronunciation needed}}. These "sparxa barnas" are again divided into five "bargs". Therefore, these twenty-five letters are also called "bargia barna".{{Clarify|date=May 2017}}{{Verify source|date=May 2017}}

Alveolar stops

The Assamese phoneme inventory is unique in the Indic group of languages in its lack of a dental-retroflex distinction among the coronal stops as well as the lack of postalveolar affricates and fricatives.[30] Historically, the dental and retroflex series merged into alveolar stops. This makes Assamese resemble non-Indic languages of Northeast India (such as Austroasiatic and Sino-Tibetan languages).{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=45}} The only other language to have fronted retroflex stops into alveolars is the closely related eastern dialects of Bengali (although a contrast with dental stops remains in those dialects). Note that {{IPAslink|r}} is normally realized as {{IPAblink|ɹ}} or as a retroflex approximant.

Voiceless velar fricative

Assamese and Sylheti are unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the {{IPA|/x/}} (which, phonetically, varies between velar ({{IPAblink|x}}) and a uvular ({{IPAblink|χ}}) pronunciations, depending on the speaker and speech register), historically the MIA sibilant has lenited to {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/h/}} (non-initially).[31] The derivation of the velar fricative from the coronal sibilant {{IPA|/s/}} is evident in the name of the language in Assamese; some Assamese prefer to write {{angle bracket|Oxomiya}} or {{angle bracket|Ôxômiya}} instead of {{angle bracket|Asomiya}} or {{angle bracket|Asamiya}} to reflect the sound change.[32] The voiceless velar fricative is absent in the West Goalpariya dialects[33] though it is found in lesser extent in East Goalpariya and Kamrupi,[34] otherwise used extensively further east. The change of {{IPA|/s/}} to {{IPA|/h/}} and then to {{IPA|/x/}}; all these have been attributed to Tibeto-Burman influence by Dr. Chatterjee.[35]

Velar nasal

Assamese, Odia, and Bengali, in contrast to other Indo-Aryan languages, use the velar nasal (the English ng in sing) extensively. In many languages, while the velar nasal is commonly restricted to preceding velar sounds, in Assamese it can occur intervocalically.[29] This is another feature it shares with other languages of Northeast India, though in Assamese the velar nasal never occurs word-initially.{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=46}}

Vowel inventory

Eastern Indic languages like Assamese, Bengali, Sylheti, and Odia do not have a vowel length distinction, but have a wide set of back rounded vowels. In the case of Assamese, there are four back rounded vowels that contrast phonemically, as demonstrated by the minimal set: {{Lang|as|কলা}} kôla {{IPA|[kɔla]}} ('deaf'), {{Lang|as|ক'লা}} kola {{IPA|[kola]}} ('black'), {{Lang|as|কোলা}} kûla {{IPA|[kʊla]}} ('lap'), and {{Lang|as|কুলা}} kula {{IPA|[kula]}} ('winnowing fan'). The near-close near-back rounded vowel {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is unique in this branch of the language family. But in lower Assam, ও is pronounced same as অ' (o') which is also correct. {{Lang|as|কোলা}} kola {{IPA|[ko'la]}} {{Lang|as|মোৰ}} mor {{IPA|[mo'r]}}

Vowel Harmony

Assamese has a phonological process called vowel harmony. In this process the vowels [i] and [u] cause the preceding mid vowels and the High Back vowels to change to [e] and [o] and [u] respectively. Assamese is one of the few languages spoken in India which exhibit a systematic process of vowel harmony [36][37]

Writing system

Modern Assamese uses the Assamese script, and in the medieval times, the script came in three varieties: Bamuniya, Garhgaya, Kaitheli/Lakhari, which developed from the Kamarupi script. It very closely resembles the Mithilakshar script of the Maithili language, as well as the Bengali script.{{Sfn|Bara|1981|p=?}} There is a strong literary tradition from early times. Examples can be seen in edicts, land grants and copper plates of medieval kings. Assam had its own manuscript writing system on the bark of the saanchi tree in which religious texts and chronicles were written, as opposed to the pan-Indian system of Palm leaf manuscript writing. The present-day spellings in Assamese are not necessarily phonetic. Hemkosh ({{lang|as|হেমকোষ}} {{IPA|[ɦɛmkʊx]}}), the second Assamese dictionary, introduced spellings based on Sanskrit, which are now the standard.

Morphology and grammar

The Assamese language has the following characteristic morphological features:{{Sfn|Kommaluri|Subramanian|Sagar K|2005}}

  • Gender and number are not grammatically marked.
  • There is a lexical distinction of gender in the third person pronoun.
  • Transitive verbs are distinguished from intransitive.
  • The agentive case is overtly marked as distinct from the accusative.
  • Kinship nouns are inflected for personal pronominal possession.
  • Adverbs can be derived from the verb roots.
  • A passive construction may be employed idiomatically.

Negativization process

Verbs in Assamese are negativized by adding {{IPA|/n/}} before the verb, with {{IPA|/n/}} picking up the initial vowel of the verb. For example:{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=47}}

  • {{IPA|/na laɡɛ/}} 'do(es) not want' (1st, 2nd and 3rd persons)
  • {{IPA|/ni likʰʊ̃/}} 'will not write' (1st person)
  • {{IPA|/nukutʊ̃/}} 'will not nibble' (1st person)
  • {{IPA|/nɛlɛkʰɛ/}} 'does not count' (3rd person)
  • {{IPA|/nɔkɔɹɔ/}} 'do not do' (2nd person)

Classifiers

Assamese has a huge collection of classifiers, which are used extensively for different kinds of objects, acquired from Sino-Tibetan languages.{{Sfn|Moral|1997|pp=49-51}} A few examples of the most extensive and elaborate use of classifiers given below:

  • "zɔn" is used to signify a person, male with some amount of respect
    • E.g., manuh-zɔn – "the man"
  • "zɔni" (female) is used after a noun or pronoun to indicate human beings
    • E.g., manuh-zɔni – "the woman"
  • "zɔni" is also used to express the non-human feminine
    • E.g., sɔɹai zɔni – "the bird", pɔɹuwa-zɔni – "the ant"
  • "zɔna" and "gɔɹaki" are used to express high respect for both man and woman
    • E.g., kɔbi-zɔna – "the poet", gʊxaɪ-zɔna – "the goddess", rastrapati-gɔɹaki – "the president", tiɹʊta-gɔɹaki – "the woman"
  • "tʊ" has three forms: tʊ, ta, ti
    • (a) tʊ: is used to specify something, although someone, e.g., loɹa-tʊ – "the particular boy" (impolite)
    • (b) ta: is used only after numerals, e.g., ɛta, duta, tinita – "one, two, three"
    • (c) ti: is the diminutive form, e.g., kesua-ti – "the infant, besides expressing more affection or attachment to
  • "kɔsa", "mɔtʰa" and "taɹ" are used for things in bunches
    • E.g., sabi-kɔsa - "the bunch of key", saul-mɔtʰa – "a handful of rice", suli-taɹi or suli kɔsa – "the bunch of hair"
  • dal, dali, are used after nouns to indicate something long but round and solid
    • E.g., bãʱ-dal - "the bamboo", katʰ-dal – "the piece of wood", bãʱ-dali – "the piece of bamboo"
Assamese Classifiers
Classifier Referent Examples
/zɔn/}} males (adult) manuh-zɔn (the man - honorific)
/zɔni/}} females (women as well as animals) manuh-zɔni (the woman), sɔrai-zɔni (the bird)
/zɔna/}} honorific kobi-zɔna (the poet), gʊxai-zɔna (the god/goddess)
/ɡɔɹaki/}} males and females (honorific) manuh-ɡɔɹaki (the woman), rastrɔpɔti-gɔɹaki (the president)
/tʊ/}} inanimate objects or males of animals and men (impolite) manuh-tʊ (the man - diminutive), gɔɹu-tʊ (the cow)
/ti/}} inanimate objects or infants kesua-ti (the baby)
/ta/}} for counting numerals e-ta (count one), du-ta (count two)
/kʰɔn/}} flat square or rectangular objects, big or small, long or short
/kʰɔni/}} terrain like rivers and mountains
/tʰupi/}} small objects
/zak/}} group of people, cattle; also for rain; cyclone
/sati/}} breeze
/pat/}} objects that are thin, flat, wide or narrow.
/paɦi/}} flowers
/sɔta/}} objects that are solid
/kɔsa/}} mass nouns
/mɔtʰa/}} bundles of objects
/mutʰi/}} smaller bundles of objects
/taɹ/}} broomlike objects
/ɡɔs/}} wick-like objects
/ɡɔsi/}} with earthen lamp or old style kerosene lamp used in Assam
/zʊpa/}} objects like trees and shrubs
/kʰila/}} paper and leaf-like objects
/kʰini/}} uncountable mass nouns and pronouns
/dal/}} inanimate flexible/stiff or oblong objects; humans (pejorative)

In Assamese, classifiers are generally used in the numeral + classifier + noun (e.g. {{IPA|/ezɔn manuh/}} 'one man') or the noun + numeral + classifier (e.g. {{IPA|/manuh ezɔn/}} 'one man') forms.

Nominalization

Most verbs can be converted into nouns by the addition of the suffix {{IPA|/ɔn/}}. For example, {{IPA|/kʰa/}} ('to eat') can be converted to {{IPA|/kʰaɔn/}} ('good eating').{{Sfn|Moral|1997|p=48}}

Grammatical cases

Assamese has 8 grammatical cases:

Number
GenderPronouns
Absolutive
Ergative 		Accusative
Dative 		Genitive Locative Dative
Singular1stm/f (I)moimükmürmütmüloi
2ndm/f (you)toi ᵛ
tumi ᶠ
apuni ᵖ		tük
tümak
apünak		tür
tümar
apünar		tüt
tümat
apünat		tüloi
tümaloi
apünaloi
3rdm (he)
n (it, that)		i *
xi **		iak
tak		iar
tar		iat
tat		ialoi
taloi
f (she)ei *
tai **		eik
taik		eir
tair		eit
tait		eiloi
tailoi
n & p (he/she)eü/ekhet(-e ᵉ) *
teü/tekhet(-e ᵉ) **		eük/ekhetok
teük/tekhetok		eür/ekhetor
teür/tekhetor		eüt/ekhetot
teüt/tekhetot		eüloi/ekhetoloi
teüloi/tekhetoloi
Plural1stm/f (we)amiamakamaramatamaloi
2ndm/f (you)tohõt(-e ᵉ) ᵛ
tümalük(-e ᵉ) ᶠ
apünalük(-e ᵉ) ᵖ		tohõtok
tümalükok
apünalükok		tohõtor
tümalükor
apünalükor		tohõtot
tümalükot
apünalükot		tohõtoloi
tümalükoloi
apünalükoloi
3rdm/f (they)ihõt *
eülük/ekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ *
xihõt **
teülük/tekhetxokol(-e ᵉ) ᵖ **		ihõtok
xihotõk
eülükok/ekhetxokolok
teülükok/tekhetxokolok		ihõtor
xihotõr
eülükor/ekhetxokolor
teülükor/tekhetxokolor		ihõtot
xihotõt
eülükot/ekhetxokolot
teülükot/tekhetxokolot		ihõtoloi
xihotõloi
eülükok/ekhetxokololoi
teülükoloi/tekhetxokololoi
n (these, those) eibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ *
eibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ *
eixomuh(-e ᵉ) ᵖ *
xeibür(-e ᵉ) ᵛ **
xeibilak(-e ᵉ) ᶠ **
xeixomuh(-e) ᵖ **		 eibürok
eibilakok
eixomuhok
xeibürok
xeibilakok
xeixomuhok		eibüror
eibilakor
eixomuhor
xeibüror
xeibilakor
xeixomuhor		 eibürot
eibilakot
eixomuhot
xeibürot
xeibilakot
xeixomuhot		 eibüroloi
eibilakoloi
eixomuholoi
xeibüroloi
xeibilakoloi
xeixomuholoi

m=male, f=female, n=neuter., *=the person or object is near., **=the person or object is far., v =very familiar, inferior, f=familiar, p=polite, e=ergative form.

Tense

With consonant ending verb likh (write) and vowel ending verb kha (eat, drink, consume).

Tense
Persontho "put"kha "consume"pi "drink"de "give"dhu "wash"kor "do"randh "cook"ah "come"
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-
Simple Present1st per.thoünothoükhaünakhaü ~ nekhaüpiünipiüdiünidiüdhuünudhuükorünokorürandhünarandhu ~ nerandhüahünahü
2nd per. inf.thoönothoökhaonakhao ~ nekhaopionipiodionidiodhuonudhuokoronokororandhonarandho ~ nerandhoahonaho
2nd per. pol.thüanüthüakhüanükhüapianipiadianidiadhüanüdhüakoranokorarandhanarandha ~ nerandhaahanaha
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoenothoekhaenakhae ~ nekhaepienipiedienidiedhuenudhuekorenokorerandhenarandhe ~ nerandheahenahe
Present continuous1st per.thoi asüthoi thoka naikhai asükhai thoka naipi asupi thoka naidi asüdi thoka naidhui asüdhui thoka naikori asükori thoka nairandhi asürandhi thoka naiahi asüahi thoka nai
2nd per. inf.thoi asokhai asopi asodi asodhui asokori asorandhi asoahi aso
2nd per. pol.thoi asakhai asapi asadi asadhui asakori asarandhi asaahi asa
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoi asekhai asepi asedi asedhui asekori aserandhi aseahi ase
Present Perfect1st per.thoisüthüa naikhaisükhüa naipisüpia naidisüdia naidhui asüdhüa naikorisükora nairandhisürondha naiahi asüoha nai
2nd per. inf.thoisokhaisopisodisodhuisokorisorandhisoahiso
2nd per. pol.thoisakhaisapisadisadhuisakorisarandhisaahisa
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoisekhaisepisedisedhuisekoriserandhiseahise
Recent Past1st per.thölünothölükhalünakhalü ~ nekhalüpilünipilüdilünidilüdhulünudhulükorilünokorilürandhilünarandhilü ~ nerandhilüahilünahilü
2nd per. inf.thölinothölikhalinakhali ~ nekhalipilinipilidilinidilidhulinudhulikorilinokorilirandhilinarandhili ~ nerandhiliahilunahilu
2nd per. pol.thölanothölakhalanakhala ~ nekhalapilanipiladilanidiladhulanudhulakorilanokorilarandhilanarandhila ~ nerandhilaahilanahila
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thölenothölekhalenakhale ~ nekhalepilenipiledilenidiledhulenudhulekorilenokorilerandhilenarandhile ~ nerandhileahile / ahilᵗʳnahile / nahilᵗʳ
Distant Past1st per.thoisilünothoisilü ~ thüa nasilükhaisilünakhaisilü ~ nekhaisilü ~ khüa nasilüpisilünipisilü ~ pia nasilüdisilünidisilü ~ dia nasilüdhuisilünudhuisilü ~ dhüa nasilükorisilünokorisilü ~ kora nasilürandhisilünarandhisilü ~ nerandhisilü ~ rondha nasilüahisilünahisilü ~ oha nasilü
2nd per. inf.thoisilinothoisili ~ thüa nasilikhaisilinakhaisili ~ nekhaisili ~ khüa nasilipisilinipisili ~ pia nasilidisilinidisili ~ dia nasilidhuisilinudhuisili ~ dhüa nasilikorisilinokorisili ~ kora nasilirandhisilinarandhisili ~ nerandhisili ~ rondha nasiliahisilinahisili ~ oha nasili
2nd per. pol.thoisilanothoisila ~ thüa nasilakhaisilanakhaisila ~ nekhaisila ~ khüa nasilapisilanipisila ~ pia nasiladisilanidisila ~ dia nasiladhuisilanudhuisila ~ dhüa nasilakorisilanokorisila ~ kora nasilarandhisilanarandhisila ~ nerandhisila ~ rondha nasilaahisilanahisila ~ oha nasila
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoisilenothoisile ~ thüa nasilekhaisilenakhaisile ~ nekhaisile ~ khüa nasilepisilenipisile ~ pia nasiledisilenidisile ~ dia nasiledhuisilenudhuisile ~ dhüa nasilekorisilenokorisile ~ kora nasilerandhisilenarandhisile ~ nerandhisile ~ rondha nasileahisilenahisile ~ oha nasile
Past continuous1st per.thoi asilüthoi thoka nasilükhai asilükhai thoka nasilüpi asilüpi thoka nasilüdi asilüdi thoka nasilüdhui asilüdhui thoka nasilükori asilükori thoka nasilürandhi asilürandhi thoka nasilüahi asilüahi thoka nasilü
2nd per. inf.thoi asilithoi thoka nasilikhai asilikhai thoka nasilipi asilipi thoka nasilidi asilidi thoka nasilidhui asilidhui thoka nasilikori asilikori thoka nasilirandhi asilirandhi thoka nasiliahi asiliahi thoka nasili
2nd per. pol.thoi asilathoi thoka nasilakhai asilakhai thoka nasilapi asilapi thoka nasiladi asiladi thoka nasiladhui asiladhui thoka nasilakori asilakori thoka nasilarandhi asilarandhi thoka nasilaahi asilaahi thoka nasila
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoi asil(e)thoi thoka nasil(e)khai asil(e)khai thoka nasil(e)pi asil(e)pi thoka nasil(e)di asil(e)di thoka nasil(e)dhui asil(e)dhui thoka nasil(e)kori asil(e)kori thoka nasil(e)randhi asil(e)randhi thoka nasil(e)ahi asil{e)ahi thoka nasil(e)
Simple Future1st per.thömnothömkhamnakham ~ nekhampimnipimdimnidimdhumnudhumkorimnokorimrandhimnarandhim ~ nerandhimahimnahim
2nd per. inf.thöbinothöbikhabinakhabi ~ nekhabipibinipibidibinidibidhubinudhubikoribinokoribirandhibinarandhibi ~ nerandhibiahibinahibi
2nd per. pol.thöbanothöbakhabanakhaba ~ nekhabapibanipibadibanidibadhubanudhubakoribanokoribarandhibanarandhiba ~ nerandhibaahibanahiba
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thöbonothöbokhabonakhabo ~ nekhabopibonipibodibonidibodhubonudhubokoribonokoriborandhibonarandhibo ~ nerandhiboahibonahibo
Future continuous1st per.thoi thakimthoi nathakim/nethakimkhai thakimkhai nathakim/nethakimpi thakimpi nathakim/nethakimdi thakimdi nathakim/nethakimdhui thakimdhui nathakim/nethakimkori thakimkori nathakim/nethakimrandhi thakimrandhi nathakim/nethakimahi thakimahi nathakim/nethakim
2nd per. inf.thoi thakibithoi nathakibi/nethakibikhai thakibikhai nathakibi/nethakibipi thakibipi nathakibi/nethakibidi thakibidi nathakibi/nethakibidhui thakibidhui nathakibi/nethakibikori thakibikori nathakibi/nethakibirandhi thakibirandhi nathakibi/nethakibiahi thakibiahi nathakibi/nethakibi
2nd per. pol.thoi thakibathoi nathakiba/nethakibakhai thakibakhai nathakiba/nethakibapi thakibapi nathakiba/nethakibadi thakibadi nathakiba/nethakibadhui thakibadhui nathakiba/nethakibakori thakibakori nathakiba/nethakibarandhi thakibarandhi nathakiba/nethakibaahi thakibaahi nathakiba/nethakiba
2nd per. hon. & 3rd per.thoi thakibothoi nathakibo/nethakibokhai thakibokhai nathakibo/nethakibopi thakibopi nathakibo/nethakibodi thakibodi nathakibo/nethakibodhui thakibodhui nathakibo/nethakibokori thakibokori nathakibo/nethakiborandhi thakiborandhi nathakibo/nethakiboahi thakiboahi nathakibo/nethakibo
The negative forms are n + 1st vowel of the verb + the verb. Example: Moi porhü, Moi noporhü (I read, I do not read); Tumi khelila, Tumi nekhelila (You played, You didn't play). For verbs that start with a vowel, just the n- is added, without vowel lengthening. In some dialects if the 1st vowel is a in a verb that starts with consonant, ne is used, like, Moi nakhaü (I don't eat) is Moi nekhaü. In past continuous the negative form is -i thoka nasil-. In future continuous it's -i na(/e)thaki-. In present continuous and present perfect, just -i thoka nai and -a nai' respectively are used for all personal pronouns. Sometimes for plural pronouns, the -hok suffix is used, like korühok (we do), ahilahok (you guys came).

Relationship suffixes

Its formation and development[39]. The translations are not close to literal:

English: A man had two sons. The younger son told his father, 'I want my share of your estate now before you die.' So his father agreed to divide his wealth between his sons. A few days later this younger son packed all his belongings and moved to a distant land, and there he wasted all his money in wild living. About the time his money ran out, a great famine swept over the land, and he began to starve. He persuaded a local farmer to hire him, and the man sent him into his fields to feed the pigs. The young man became so hungry that even the pods he was feeding the pigs looked good to him. But no one gave him anything.Eastern Assamese (Sibsagar): Künü ezon manuhor duta putek asil, tare xorutüe bapekok kole, "Oi büpai! xompottir zi bhag moi paü tak mük diok!" Tate teü teür xompotti duiü putekor bhitorot bati dile. Olop dinor pasot xorutü puteke tar bhagot zi pale take loi dur dexoloi goi beissali kori gütei xompotti nax korile. Tar pasot xei dexot bor akal höl. Tate xi dux paboloi dhorile. Tetia xi goi xei dexor ezon manuhor asroe lole, aru xei manuhe tak gahori soraboloi potharoloi pothai dile. Tate xi gahorir khüa ebidh gosor seire pet bhoraboloi bor hepah korileü tak küneü ekü nidile.Central Assamese: Manhu ezono duta putak asil. Tahãtüü bhitoot xoutü putake bapekok kola,Kamrupi (Pati Darrang): Eta manhur duta putak asil, xehatör xorutui bapakök kolak, "He pite, xompöttir mör bhagöt zikhini porei, take mök di." Tate teö nizör xompötti xehatök bhagei dilak. Tar olop dinör pasötei xeñ xoru putektüi xokolöke götei loi kömba dexok legi polei gel aru tate lompot kamöt götei urei dilak. Xi xokolö bioe koraõte xeñ dexöt bor akal hol. Xi tate bor kosto paba dhollak. Teten xi aru xeñ dexor eta manhur asroe lolak. Xeñ mantui nizör potharök legi tak bora saribak legi pothei dilak. Tate xi aru borai khawa ekbidh gasör sei di pet bhorabak legi bor hepah kollak. Kintu kawei ekö tak nedlak.Kamrupi (Palasbari): Kunba eta manhur duta putak asil. Ekdin xortö putake bapiakok kola, "Bapa wa, apunar xompöttir moi bhagöt zeman kheni pam teman khini mök dia." Tethane bapiake nizör xompötti duö putakok bhage dila. Keidinman pasöt xörtö putake tar bhagtö loi kunba akhan durher dekhok gel, aru tate gundami köri tar götei makha xompötti nohoa koilla. Tar pasöt xiai dekhot mosto akal hol. Tethian xi bor dukh paba dhoilla. Tar xi tarei eta manhur osarök zai asroe asroe lola. Manhtöi tak bara sarba potharöl khedala. Tate xi barai khawa ekbidh gasör seṅ khaba dhoilla. Teö tak kayö akö khaba neidla.Kamrupi (Barpeta): Kunba eta manhör duta putek asil. Ekdin xorutu puteke bapekök kolak, "Pita, amar xompöttir moi zikhini mör bhagöt paü xikhini mök dia." Tethen bapeke nizör xompötti tahak bhage dilak. Tare keidinmen pisöte xei xoru putektui tar gotexopake loi ekhen duhrer dekhök gusi gel, arö tate xi lompot hoi tar gotexopa xompöttike ure phellak. Tar pasöt xei dekhkhenöt mosto akal hol. Tethen xi xei dekhör eta manhör osröt zai asroe lolak. Manuhtui tak bara sarbak login patharök khedolak. Tate xi ekbidh barai khawa gasör sẽi khaba dhollak. Take dekhiö kayö tak ekö khaba nedlak.Western Goalpariya (Salkocha): Kunö ekzon mansir duizon saöa asil. Tar sötotae bapok koil, "Baba sompöttir ze bhag mör, tak mök de." Tat oë nizer sompötti umak batia dil. Tar olpo din pasöte öi söta saöata sök götea dur desot gel. Ore lompot beboharot or sompötti uzar koril. Oë götay khoros korar pasöt oi desot boro akal hoil. Ote oya kosto paba dhoril. Sela oë zaya öi deser ekzon mansir asroe löat öi manusi ok suar soraba patharot pothea dil. Ote suare khaöa ek rokom gaser sal dia pet bhoroba saileö ok kah kisu nadil.

Non-regional dialects

Assamese does not have caste- or occupation-based dialects.[40] In the nineteenth century, the Eastern dialect became the standard dialect because it witnessed more literary activity and it was more uniform from east of Guwahati to Sadiya,{{Sfn|Kakati|1941|p=14-16}} whereas the western dialects were more heterogeneous.{{Sfn|Goswami|2003|p=436}} Since the nineteenth century, the center of literary activity (as well as of politics and commerce) has shifted to Guwahati; as a result, the standard dialect has evolved considerably away from the largely rural Eastern dialects and has become more urban and acquired western dialectal elements.[41] Most literary activity takes place in this dialect, and is often called the likhito-bhaxa, though regional dialects are often used in novels and other creative works.

In addition to the regional variants, sub-regional, community-based dialects are also prevalent, namely:

  • Standard dialect influenced by surrounding centers.
  • Bhakatiya dialect highly polite, a sattra-based dialect with a different set of nominals, pronominals, and verbal forms, as well as a preference for euphemism; indirect and passive expressions.{{Sfn|Goswami|2003|pp=439-440}} Some of these features are used in the standard dialect on very formal occasions.
  • The fisherman community has a dialect that is used in the central and eastern region.
  • The astrologer community of Darrang district has a dialect called thar that is coded and secretive. The ratikhowa and bhitarpanthiya secretive cult-based Vaisnava groups too have their own dialects.[42]
  • The Muslim community have their own dialectal preference, with their own kinship, custom, and religious terms, with those in east Assam having distinct phonetic features.[41]
  • The urban adolescent and youth communities (for example, Guwahati) have exotic, hybrid and local slangs.[41]
  • Ethnic speech communities that use Assamese as a second language, often use dialects that are influenced heavily by the pronunciation, intonation, stress, vocabulary and syntax of their respective first languages (Mising Eastern Assamese, Bodo Central Kamrupi, Rabha Eastern Goalpariya etc.).[42] Two independent pidgins/creoles, associated with the Assamese language, are Nagamese (used by Naga groups) and Nefamese (used in Arunachal Pradesh).[43]

Literature

{{main article|Assamese literature}}

There is a growing and strong body of literature in this language. The first characteristics of this language are seen in the Charyapadas composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's Saptakanda Ramayana. The popular ballad in the form of Ojapali is also regarded as well-crafted. The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries saw a flourishing of Vaishnavite literature, leading up to the emergence of modern forms of literature in the late nineteenth century.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in Assamese of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

Assamese in Assamese alphabet

{{lang|as|দফা ১: সকলো মানুহে স্বাধীনভাৱে সমান ঠাকুৰালি আৰু অধিকাৰে জন্ম লয় । সকলোৰে বিবেক আৰু জ্ঞান-বুদ্ধি আছে আৰু সকলোৱে এজনে আনজনক ভাই-ভাই হিচাপে ব্যৱহাৰ দিব লাগে ।}}

Assamese in phonetic Romanization 1

Dopha êk: Xôkôlû manuhê sadhinbhawê xôman thakurali aru ôdhikarê zônmô lôy. Xôkôlûrê bibêk aru ɡyan-buddhi asê aru xôkôlûê êzônê anzônôk bhai-bhai hisapê byôwôhar dibô lagê.

Assamese in phonetic Romanization 2

Dopha ek: Xokolü manuhe sadhinbhawe xoman thakurali aru odhikare zonmo loy. Xokolüre bibek aru ɡyan-buddhi ase aru xokolüe ezone anzonok bhai-bhai hisape byowohar dibo lage.

Assamese in the International Phonetic Alphabet

{{IPA|/dɔɸa ɛk {{!}} xɔkɔlʊ manuɦɛ sadʱinbʱaβɛ xɔman tʰakuɹali aɹu ɔdʱikaɹɛ zɔnmɔ lɔe̯ {{!}}{{!}} xɔkɔlʊɹɛ bibɛk aɹu ɡɪan-buddʱi asɛ aɹu xɔkɔlʊɛ ɛzɔnɛ anzɔnɔ bʱaɪ-bʱaɪ ɦisapɛ bɛβɔɦaɹ dibɔ lagɛ/}}

Gloss

Clause 1: all human free-manner-in equal dignity and right was taken birth takes. Everyone's reason and conscience exist, and everyone-indeed one towards another brother as behaviour give-to should.

Translation

Article 1: All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

See also

  • Indo-Aryan languages
  • Languages of India
  • Languages with official status in India
  • List of Indian languages by total speakers
  • List of languages by number of native speakers
  • Kamrupi litterateurs

Notes

1. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm|title=2016. Ethnologic: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International|work=SIL International|date=2016}}
2. ^{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16475/Kulikov,Review%20Cardona-Jain%20IA.pdf?sequence=2|title=The Indo-Aryan languages, Routledge Language Family Series, vol. 2, London and New York: Routledge|work=George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain|date=2003}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lisindia.net/Assamese/Assa_demo.html|title=Assamese|publisher=lisindia.net}}
4. ^ 
5. ^http://sealang.net/ahom/
6. ^{{cite web|title=Assamese - definition of Assamese in English from the Oxford dictionary|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/assamese?q=Assamese|accessdate=2 March 2016}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/asm|title=2016. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Nineteenth edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International|work=SIL International|date=2016}}
8. ^{{cite web|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/moral1996consonant.pdf|title=Consonant Germination and Compensatory Lengthening in Asamiya dialects: Contemporary standard and Central Assam|work=Dipankar Moral - Gauhati University}}
9. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.unl.fi.upm.es/consorcio/archivos/publicaciones/goa/paper08.pdf|title=International Conference on Universal Knowledge and Language. Goa, 25 - 27 November, 2002 - DEURI and TIWA: Endangered languages in the Brahmaputra valley|work=Dipankar Moral, Gauhati University|date=November 2002}}
10. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm |title=Statement |publisher=censusindia.gov.in |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206233628/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.htm |archivedate=6 February 2012 |df=dmy }}
11. ^"Axomiya is the major language spoken in Assam, and serves almost as a lingua franca among the different speech communities in the whole area." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}
12. ^"...Rajbangshi dialect of the Rangpur Division (Bangladesh), and the adjacent Indian Districts of Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar, has been classed with Bengali because its speakers identify with the Bengali culture and literary language, although it is linguistically closer to Assamese." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=25}}
13. ^Sen, Sukumar (1975), Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1, P 31
14. ^"...the MIA languages are not younger than ('classical') Sanskrit. And a number of their morphophonological and lexical features betray the fact that they are not direct descendants of Rigvedic Sanskrit, the main basis of 'Classical' Sanskrit; rather they descend from dialects which, despite many similarities, were different from Rigvedic and in some regards even more archaic." {{harvcol|Oberlies|2007|p=163}}
15. ^Proto-Kamta took its inheritance from ?proto-Kamarupa (and before that from ?proto-Gauda-Kamarupa), innovated the unique features ... in 1250-1550 AD" {{harvcol|Toulmin|2006|p=306}}
16. ^"Axomiya has historically originated in Old Indo-Aryan dialects, but the exact nature of its origin and growth is not very clear as yet." {{harvcol|Goswami|2003|pp=394}}
17. ^{{harv|Kakati|1941|p=6}}
18. ^Goswami, Golockchandra (1982), Structure of Assamese, Page 3
19. ^There is evidence that the Prakrit of the Kamarupa kingdom differed enough from the Magadhi Prakrit to be identified as either a parallel Kamrupi Prakrit or at least an eastern variety of the Magadha Prakrit {{Harvcol|Sharma|1990|pp=0.24–0.28}}
20. ^"It is curious to find that according to (Hiuen Tsang) the language of Kamarupa 'differed a little' from that of mid-India. Hiuen Tsang is silent about the language of Pundra-vardhana or Karna-Suvarna; it can be presumed that the language of these tracts was identical with that of Magadha." {{harv|Chatterji|1926|p=78}}
21. ^"Perhaps this 'differing a little' of the Kamarupa speech refers to those modifications of Aryan sounds which now characterise Assamese as well as North- and East-Bengali dialects." {{harv|Chatterji|1926|pp=78–89}}
22. ^"When [the Tibeto-Burman speakers] adopted that language they also enriched it with their vocabularies, expressions, affixes etc." {{harv|Saikia|1997|p=4}}
23. ^"... (it shows) that in Ancient Assam there were three languages viz. (1) Sanskrit as the official language and the language of the learned few, (2) Non-Aryan tribal languages of the Austric and Tibeto-Burman families, and (3) a local variety of Prakrit (ie a MIA) wherefrom, in course of time, the modern Assamese language as a MIL, emerged." {{harv|Sharma|1978|pp=xxiv-xxviii}}
24. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.assaminaustralia.org.au/|title=Assamese Association – of Australia (ACT & NSW)|publisher=}}
25. ^{{cite web|url=http://assamtoday.tripod.com/|title=Welcome to the Website of "Axom Xomaj",Dubai, UAE (Assam Society of Dubai, UAE)!|publisher=}}
26. ^{{cite web|url=http://assamforumgb.org.uk/index.php/about/constitution|title=Constitution|publisher=}}
27. ^{{cite web|url=http://aanahome.org/|title=AANA - AANA Overview|publisher=}}
28. ^{{cite web|url=http://assam.gov.in/web/secretariat-administration-department|title=Secretariat Administration Department|publisher=assam.gov.in}}
29. ^1 2 Assamese, Resource Centre for Indian Language Technology Solutions, Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati.
30. ^"Assamese, alone among NIA languages except for Romany, has also lost the characteristic IA dental/retroflex contrast (although it is retained in spelling), reducing the number of articulations, with the loss also of {{IPA|/c/}}, to three." {{harv|Masica|1993|p=95}}
31. ^The word "hare", for example: śaśka (OIA) > χɔhā (hare). {{harv|Masica|1993|p=206}}
32. ^Whereas most fricatives become sibilants in Eastern Goalpariya (sukh, santi, asa in Eastern Goalpariya; xukh, xanti, axa in western Kamrupi) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=286}}; some use of the fricative is seen as in the word xi (for both "he" and "she") {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=287}} and xap khar (the snake) {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=288}}. The {{IPAslink|x}} is completely absent in Western Goalpariya {{harv|Dutta|1995|p=290}}
33. ^B Datta (1982), Linguistic situation in north-east India, the distinctive h sound of Assamese is absent in the West Goalpariya dialect
34. ^Goswami, Upendranath (1970), A Study on Kamrupi, p.xiii {{IPA|/x/}} does not occur finally in Kamrupi. But in St. Coll. it occurs. In non-initial positions O.I.A sibilants became {{IPA|/kʰ/}} and also {{IPA|/h/}} whereas in St. Coll. they become {{IPA|/x/}}.
35. ^Chatterjee, Suniti Kumar, Kirata Jana Krti, p. 54.
36. ^{{Cite thesis|title=Directionality and locality in vowel harmony: With special reference to vowel harmony in Assamese|url=https://www.lotpublications.nl/directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-directionality-and-locality-in-vowel-harmony-with-special-reference-to-vowel-harmony-in-assamese}}
37. ^{{Cite journal|last=Mahanta|first=Shakuntala|date=August 2012|title=Assamese|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-phonetic-association/article/assamese/FD4090937A7BC4318FCF1117E82313E4|journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association|language=en|volume=42|issue=2|pages=217–224|doi=10.1017/S0025100312000096|issn=1475-3502}}
38. ^"Assamese may be divided dialectically into Eastern and Western Assamese" {{harv|Kakati|1941|p=16}}
39. ^https://archive.org/details/AssameseitsFormationAndDevelopment
40. ^{{harvcol|Goswami|2003|p=403}}
41. ^1 2 {{harv|Dutta|2003|p=106}}
42. ^1 {{harv|Dutta|2003|p=107}}
43. ^{{harv|Dutta|2003|pp=108–109}}

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|contribution=Language and Literature
|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam: Ancient Period
|volume=I
|year=1990
|pages=263–284
|place=Guwahati, Assam
|publisher=Publication Board, Assam
}}
  • {{cite thesis|ref=harv|type=Ph.D.|first=Mathew W S|last=Toulmin|title=Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan|url=https://digitalcollections.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/45743|publisher=The Australian National University|year=2006|date=|degree=|doi=}}
{{refend}}

External links

{{wikivoyage|Assamese phrasebook|Assamese phrasebook|an entry}}{{Commons category|Assamese language}}{{InterWiki|code=as}}
  • {{DMOZ|Science/Social_Sciences/Linguistics/Languages/Natural/Indo-European/Indo-Iranian/Indo-Aryan/Assamese/}}
  • [https://www.britannica.com/topic/Assamese-language Assamese language] at Encyclopædia Britannica
  • [https://archive.org/details/AxamiyBhxrMoulikBisr_16 Axamiyaa Bhaaxaar Moulik Bisar by Mr Devananda Bharali (PDF)]
  • Tonkori (Affinities of the Ainu language of Japan with Assamese and some other languages) by Dr Satyakam Phukan
  • Roots and Strings of the Assamese language, article by Dr Satyakam Phukan
  • Candrakānta abhidhāna : Asamiyi sabdara butpatti aru udaharanere Asamiya-Ingraji dui bhashara artha thaka abhidhana. second ed. Guwahati : Guwahati Bisbabidyalaya, 1962.
  • [https://books.google.com/books?id=kCtXYo4Za_0C A Dictionary in Assamese and English] (1867) First Assamese dictionary by Miles Bronson from (books.google.com)
  • Assamese computing resources at TDIL
  • [https://archive.org/details/someassamesepro01gurdgoog Assamese proverbs, published 1896]
{{Eastern Indo-Aryan languages}}{{Languages of India}}{{Languages of Northeast India}}{{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Assamese Language}}

7 : Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Official languages of India|Languages of Bangladesh|Assamese language|Languages of Assam|Subject–object–verb languages|Indo-Aryan languages

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