“Durga”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Durga ({{lang-sa|दुर्गा}}, {{IAST3|Durgā}}), identified as Adi Parashakti, is a principal and popular form of Hindu Goddess.{{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}}{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Charles Phillips| Michael Kerrigan| David Gould|2011|pp=93–94}} She is the warrior goddess, whose mythology centres around combating evils and demonic forces that threaten peace, prosperity and dharma of the good.{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}} She is the fierce form of the protective mother goddess, willing to unleash her anger against wrong, violence for liberation and destruction to empower creation.{{sfn|Amazzone|2012|pp=3–5}}

Durga is depicted in the Hindu pantheon as a Goddess riding a lion or tiger, with many arms each carrying a weapon,{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}} often defeating Mahishasura (lit. buffalo demon).{{sfn|David R Kinsley|1989|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Laura Amazzone|2011|pp=71–73}}{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–6}}

The three principle forms of Durga worshiped are Maha Durga, Chandika and Aparajita. Of these, Chandika has two forms called Chandi who is of the combined power and form of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati and of Chamunda who is a form of Kali created by the goddess for killing demons Chanda and Munda. Maha Durga has three forms: Ugrachanda, Bhadrakali and Katyayani.^[2]^[3] Bhadrakali Durga is also worshiped in the form of her nine epithets called Navadurga.

She is a central deity in Shaktism tradition of Hinduism, where she is equated with the concept of ultimate reality called Brahman.{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=9–17}}{{sfn|Paul Reid-Bowen|2012|pp=212–213}} One of the most important texts of Shaktism is Devi Mahatmya, also known as Durgā Saptashatī or Chandi patha, which celebrates Durga as the goddess, declaring her as the supreme being and the creator of the universe.{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–216}}{{Sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=101–102}}{{sfn|Amazzone|2012|p=xi}} Estimated to have been composed between 400 and 600 CE,{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=77 note 28}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=13}}{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|p=1}} this text is considered by Shakta Hindus to be as important a scripture as the Bhagavad Gita.{{Sfn|Rocher|1986|p=193}}{{sfn|Hillary Rodrigues|2003|pp=50–54}} She has a significant following all over India, Bangladesh and Nepal, particularly in its eastern states such as West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam and Bihar. Durga is revered after spring and autumn harvests, specially during the festival of Navratri.{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}{{sfn|Constance Jones|James D Ryan|2006|pp=139–140, 308–309}}

Etymology and nomenclature

The word Durga (दुर्गा)(দুর্গা) literally means "impassable",{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} {{sfn|Encyclopedia Britannica|2015}} "invincible, unassailable".{{sfn|Amazzone|2012|p=xxii}} It is related to the word Durg (दुर्ग)(দুর্গ) which means "fortress, something difficult to defeat or pass". According to Monier Monier-Williams, Durga is derived from the roots dur (difficult) and gam (pass, go through).^[4] According to Alain Daniélou, Durga means "beyond defeat".{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=21}}

The word Durga, and related terms appear in the Vedic literature, such as in the Rigveda hymns 4.28, 5.34, 8.27, 8.47, 8.93 and 10.127, and in sections 10.1 and 12.4 of the Atharvaveda.^[1]^[5]{{refn|group=note|It appears in Khila (appendix, supplementary) text to Rigveda 10.127, 4th Adhyaya, per J. Scheftelowitz.^[6]}} A deity named Durgi appears in section 10.1.7 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka.^[1] While the Vedic literature uses the word Durga, the description therein lacks the legendary details about her that is found in later Hindu literature.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=95–96}}

The word is also found in ancient post-Vedic Sanskrit texts such as in section 2.451 of the Mahabharata and section 4.27.16 of the Ramayana.^[1] These usages are in different contexts. For example, Durg is the name of an Asura who had become invincible to gods, and Durga is the goddess who intervenes and slays him. Durga and its derivatives are found in sections 4.1.99 and 6.3.63 of the Ashtadhyayi by Pāṇini, the ancient Sanskrit grammarian, and in the commentary of Nirukta by Yaska.^[1] Durga as a demon-slaying goddess was likely well established by the time the classic Hindu text called Devi Mahatmya was composed, which scholars variously estimate to between 400 and 600 CE.{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=77 note 28}}{{Sfn|Coburn|1991|pp=13}}{{Sfn|Coburn|2002|pp=1–7}} The Devi Mahatmya and other mythologies describe the nature of demonic forces symbolised by Mahishasura as shape-shifting and adapting in nature, form and strategy to create difficulties and achieve their evil ends, while Durga calmly understands and counters the evil in order to achieve her solemn goals.{{sfn|Alain Daniélou|1991|p=288}}{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=215–219}}{{refn|group=note|In the Shakta tradition of Hinduism, many of the stories about obstacles and battles have been considered as metaphors for the divine and demonic within each human being, with liberation being the state of self-understanding whereby a virtuous nature and society emerging victorious over the vicious.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=20–21, 217–219}}}}

There are many epithets for Durga in Shaktism and her nine appellations are (Navadurga): Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayini, Kaalratri, Mahagauri and Siddhidatri. A list of 108 names of the goddess are recited in order to worship her and is popularly known as the "Ashtottarshat Namavali of Goddess Durga".

History and texts

One of the earliest evidence of reverence for Devi – the feminine nature of God, appears in chapter 10.125 of the Rig Veda, one of the scriptures of Hinduism. This hymn is also called the Devi Suktam hymn (abridged):{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=90}}{{Sfn|Cheever Mackenzie Brown|1998|p=26}}

Devi's epithets synonymous with Durga appear in Upanishadic literature, such as Kali in verse 1.2.4 of the Mundaka Upanishad dated to about the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} This single mention describes Kali as "terrible yet swift as thought", very red and smoky colored manifestation of the divine with a fire-like flickering tongue, before the text begins presenting its thesis that one must seek self-knowledge and the knowledge of the eternal Brahman.^[8]

Durga, in her various forms, appears as an independent deity in the Epics period of ancient India, that is the centuries around the start of the common era.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Both Yudhisthira and Arjuna characters of the Mahabharata invoke hymns to Durga.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} She appears in Harivamsa in the form of Vishnu's eulogy, and in Pradyumna prayer.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|p=162}} Various Puranas from the early to late 1st millennium CE dedicate chapters of inconsistent mythologies associated with Durga.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=162–163}} Of these, the Markandeya Purana and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana are the most significant texts on Durga.{{sfn|Rocher|1986|pp=168–172, 191–193}}{{Sfn|C Mackenzie Brown|1990|pp=44–45, 129, 247–248 with notes 57–60}} The Devi Upanishad and other Shakta Upanishads, mostly dated to have been composed in or after the 9th century, present the philosophical and mystical speculations related to Durga as Devi and other epithets, identifying her to be the same as the Brahman and Atman (self, soul).{{Sfn|Brooks|1992|pp=76–80}}{{Sfn|June McDaniel|2004|pp=89–91}}

Origins

The historian Ramaprasad Chanda stated in 1916 that Durga evolved over time in the Indian subcontinent. A primitive form of Durga, according to Chanda, was the result of "syncretism of a mountain-goddess worshiped by the dwellers of the Himalaya and the Vindhyas", a deity of the Abhiras conceptualized as a war-goddess. Durga then transformed into Kali as the personification of the all-destroying time, while aspects of her emerged as the primordial energy (Adya Sakti) integrated into the samsara (cycle of rebirths) concept and this idea was built on the foundation of the Vedic religion, mythology and philosophy.{{sfn|June McDaniel|2004|p=214}}

Epigraphical evidence indicates that regardless of her origins, Durga is an ancient goddess. The 6th-century CE inscriptions in early Siddhamatrika script, such as at the Nagarjuni hill cave during the Maukhari era, already mention the legend of her victory over Mahishasura (buffalo-hybrid demon).^[9]

Birth

Originally she is Adi Parashakti, present before creation and after destruction of the entire universe. She is the ultimate energy but to defeat the Asura Mahishasura all the gods invoked her and as she was present in the form of shakti in all the gods, so she manifested herself from the three gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and the other gods. Thus her manifested form was born/emerged from the gods to end the torture of Asura Mahishasura. She was gifted with different weapons, ornaments, valuable clothes and gold jewelleries with precious stones and a lion as her mount before going for the war.

European traders and colonial era references

Some early European accounts refer to a deity known as Deumus, Demus or Deumo. Western (Portuguese) sailors first came face to face with the murti of Deumus at Calicut on the Malabar Coast and they concluded it to be the deity of Calicut. Deumus is sometimes interpreted as an aspect of Durga in Hindu mythology and sometimes as deva. It is described that the ruler of Calicut (Zamorin) had a murti of Deumus in his temple inside his royal palace.^[10]

Attributes and iconography

Durga has been a warrior goddess, and she is depicted to express her martial skills. Her iconography typically resonates with these attributes, where she rides a lion or a tiger,{{sfn|Robert S Ellwood|Gregory D Alles|2007|p=126}} has between eight and eighteen hands, each holding a weapon to destroy and create.{{sfn|Amazzone|2012|pp=4–5}}{{sfn|Chitrita Banerji|2006|pp=3–5}} She is often shown in the midst of her war with Mahishasura, the buffalo demon at the time she victoriously kills the demonic force. Her icon shows her in action, yet her face is calm and serene.{{sfn|Donald J LaRocca|1996|pp=5–7}}^[11] In Hindu arts, this tranquil attribute of Durga's face is traditionally derived from the belief that she is protective and violent not because of her hatred, egotism or getting pleasure in violence, but because she acts out of necessity, for the love of the good, for liberation of those who depend on her, and a mark of the beginning of soul's journey to creative freedom.^[11]{{sfn|Amazzone|2012|pp=4–9, 14–17}}{{sfn|Malcolm McLean|1998|pp=60–65}}

Durga traditionally holds the weapons of various male gods of Hindu mythology, which they give her to fight the evil forces because they feel that she is the shakti (energy, power).^[12] These include chakra, conch, bow, arrow, sword, javelin, shield, and a noose.{{sfn|Charles Russell Coulter|Patricia Turner|2013|p=158}} These weapons are considered symbolic by Shakta Hindus, representing self-discipline, selfless service to others, self-examination, prayer, devotion, remembering her mantras, cheerfulness and meditation. Durga herself is viewed as the "Self" within and the divine mother of all creation.^[13] She has been revered by warriors, blessing their new weapons.^[14] Durga iconography has been flexible in the Hindu traditions, where for example some intellectuals place a pen or other writing implements in her hand since they consider their stylus as their weapon.^[14]

Archeological discoveries suggest that these iconographic features of Durga became common throughout India by about the 4th century CE, states David Kinsley – a professor of religious studies specializing on Hindu goddesses.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=95–105}} Durga iconography in some temples appears as part of Mahavidyas or Saptamatrkas (seven mothers considered forms o Durga). Her icons in major Hindu temples such as in Varanasi include relief artworks that show scenes from the Devi Mahatmya.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=30–35, 60, 16–22, 149}}

Durga appears in Hindu mythology in numerous forms and names, but ultimately all these are different aspects and manifestations of one goddess. She is imagined to be terrifying and destructive when she has to be, but benevolent and nurturing when she needs to be.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–74}} While anthropomorphic icons of her, such as those showing her riding a lion and holding weapons are common, the Hindu traditions use aniconic forms and geometric designs (yantra) to remember and revere what she symbolizes.{{sfn|Patricia Monaghan|2011|pp=73–78}}

Worship and festivals

Durga is worshipped in Hindu temples across India and Nepal by Shakta Hindus. Her temples, worship and festivals are particularly popular in eastern and northeastern parts of Indian subcontinent during Durga puja, Dashain and Navaratri.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}}^[15]

Durga puja

As per Markandya Puran, Durga puja can be performed either for 9 days or 4 days (last four in sequence). The four-day-long Durga Puja is a major annual festival in Bengal, Odisha, Assam, Jharkhand and Bihar.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|James G Lochtefeld|2002|p=208}} It is scheduled per the Hindu luni-solar calendar in the month of Ashvin,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=106–108}} and typically falls in September or October. Since it is celebrated during Sharad (literally, season of weeds), it is called as Sharadiya Durga Puja or Akal-Bodhan to differentiate it from the one celebrated originally in spring. The festival is celebrated by communities by making special colorful images of Durga out of clay,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1997|pp=18–19}} recitations of Devi Mahatmya text,{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=106–108}} prayers and revelry for nine days, after which it is taken out in procession with singing and dancing, then immersed in water. The Durga puja is an occasion of major private and public festivities in the eastern and northeastern states of India.{{sfn|Wendy Doniger|1999|p=306}}{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}}{{sfn|Lynn Foulston|Stuart Abbott|2009|pp=162–169}}

The day of Durga's victory is celebrated as Vijayadashami (Bijoya in Bengali), Dashain (Nepali) or Dussehra (in Hindi) – these words literally mean "the victory on the Tenth (day)".^[16]

This festival is an old tradition of Hinduism, though it is unclear how and in which century the festival began. Surviving manuscripts from the 14th century provide guidelines for Durga puja, while historical records suggest royalty and wealthy families were sponsoring major Durga puja public festivities since at least the 16th century.{{sfn|Rachel Fell McDermott|2001|pp=172–174}} The 11th or 12th century Jainism text Yasatilaka by Somadeva mentions a festival and annual dates dedicated to a warrior goddess, celebrated by the king and his armed forces, and the description mirrors attributes of a Durga puja.{{sfn|David Kinsley|1988|pp=106–108}}

The prominence of Durga puja increased during the British Raj in Bengal.^[17] After the Hindu reformists identified Durga with India, she became an icon for the Indian independence movement.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

Dashain

In Nepal, the festival dedicated to Durga is called Dashain (sometimes spelled as Dasain), which literally means "the ten".^[15] Dashain is the longest national holiday of Nepal, and is a public holiday in Sikkim and Bhutan. During Dashain, Durga is worshipped in ten forms (Shailaputri, Brahmacharini, Chandraghanta, Kushmanda, Skandamata, Katyayani, Kalaratri, Mahagauri, Mahakali and Durga) with one form for each day in Nepal. The festival includes animal sacrifice in some communities, as well as the purchase of new clothes and gift giving. Traditionally, the festival is celebrated over 15 days, the first nine-day are spent by the faithful by remembering Durga and her ideas, the tenth day marks Durga's victory over Mahisura, and the last five days celebrate the victory of good over evil.^[15]

During the first nine days, nine aspects of Durga known as Navadurga are meditated upon, one by one during the nine-day festival by devout Shakti worshippers. Durga Puja also includes the worship of Shiva, who is Durga's consort, in addition to Lakshmi, Saraswati, Ganesha and Kartikeya, who are considered to be Durga's children.^[18] Some Shaktas worship Durga's symbolism and presence as Mother Nature. In South India, especially Andhra Pradesh, Dussera Navaratri is also celebrated and the goddess is dressed each day as a different Devi, all considered equivalent but another aspect of Durga.

Other countries

In Bangladesh, the four-day-long Sharadiya Durga Puja is the most important religious festival for the Hindus and celebrated across the country with Vijayadashami being a national holiday. In Sri Lanka, Durga in the form of Vaishnavi, bearing Vishnu's iconographic symbolism is celebrated. This tradition has been continued by Sri Lankan diaspora.^[19]

In Buddhism

According to Hajime Nakamura, over its history, some Buddhist traditions adopted Vedic and Hindu ideas and symbols. For example, the fierce Vajrayana Buddhist meditational deity Yamantaka, also known as Vajrabhairava, developed from the pre-Buddhist god of death, Yama.^[20] The Tantric traditions of Buddhism included Durga and developed the idea further.^[21] In Japanese Buddhism, she appears as Butsu-mo (sometimes called Koti-sri).^[22] In Tibet, the goddess Palden Lhamo is similar to the protective and fierce Durga.^[23]^[24]

In Jainism

The Sacciya mata found in major medieval era Jain temples mirrors Durga, and she has been identified by Jainism scholars to be the same or sharing a more ancient common lineage.^[25] In the Ellora Caves, the Jain temples feature Durga with her lion mount. However, she is not shown as killing the buffalo demon in the Jain cave, but she is presented as a peaceful deity.^[26]

In Sikhism

Durga is exalted as the divine in Dasam Granth, a sacred text of Sikhism that is traditionally attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.^[27] According to Eleanor Nesbitt, this view has been challenged by Sikhs who consider Sikhism to be monotheistic, who hold that a feminine form of Supreme and a reverence for Goddess is "unmistakably of Hindu character".^[27]

Outside Indian subcontinent

Archeological site excavations in Indonesia, particularly on the island of Java, have yielded numerous statues of Durga. These have been dated to be from 6th century onwards.^[28] Of the numerous early to mid medieval era Hindu deity stone statues uncovered on Indonesian islands, at least 135 statues are of Durga.^[29] In parts of Java, she is known as Loro Jonggrang (literally, "slender maiden").^[30]

In Cambodia, during its era of Hindu kings, Durga was popular and numerous sculptures of her have been found. However, most differ from the Indian representation in one detail. The Cambodian Durga iconography shows her standing on top of the cut buffalo demon head.^[31]

Durga statues have been discovered at stone temples and archeological sites in Vietnam, likely related to Champa or Cham dynasty era.^[32]^[33]

Influence

Durga is a major goddess in Hinduism, and the inspiration of Durga Puja – a large annual festival particularly in the eastern and northeastern states of India. Every village, town and city Goddess is her form (if not a form of Laxmi). Durga is celebrated across North India commonly with the phrase 'Jay Mata Di'. She is worshiped as Kamakshi in Tamil Nadu. Major cities like Mumbai (named after Mumba Devi-a name for Durga) and Kolkata (from Kalika, a major form of Durga) are named after her.^[34]

One of the devotees of her form as Kali was Sri Ramakrishna who was the guru of Swami Vivekananda. He is the founder of the Ramakrishna Mission.

Durga as the mother goddess is the inspiration behind the song Vande Mataram, written by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, during Indian independence movement, later the official national song of India.

Durga is present in Indian Nationalism where Bharat Mata i.e. Mother India is viewed as a form of Durga. This is completely secular and keeping in line with the ancient ideology of Durga as Mother and protector to Indians. She is present in pop culture and blockbuster Bollywood movies like Jai Santoshi Maa.

The Indian Army uses phrases like "Durga Mata ki Jai!" and "Kaali Mata ki Jai!".

Any woman who takes up a cause to fight for goodness and justice is said to have the spirit of Durga in her.^[35]^[36]

See also

Notes

1. ^¹²³⁴Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487
2. ^https://www.kamakotimandali.com/srividya/durgalist.html
3. ^http://www.kamakotimandali.com/blog/index.php?p=1154&more=1&c=1&tb=1&pb=1
4. ^Monier Monier Williams (1899), Sanskrit English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 487
5. ^Maurice Bloomfield (1906), [https://archive.org/stream/vedicconcordance00bloouoft#page/486/mode/1up A Vedic concordance], Series editor: Charles Lanman, Harvard University Press, page 486;
Example Sanskrit original: "अहन्निन्द्रो अदहदग्निरिन्दो पुरा दस्यून्मध्यंदिनादभीके ।दुर्गे दुरोणे क्रत्वा न यातां पुरू सहस्रा शर्वा नि बर्हीत् ॥३॥ – Rigveda 4.28.8, [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_४.२८ Wikisource]
6. ^{{cite book|author=J Scheftelowitz|title=Indische Forschungen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jhIAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA112|year=1906|publisher=Verlag von M & H Marcus|pages=112 line 13a}}
7. ^[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_125 The Rig Veda/Mandala 10/Hymn 125] Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator); for Sanskrit original see: [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.१२५ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.१२५]
8. ^[https://archive.org/stream/thirteenprincipa028442mbp#page/n389/mode/2up Mundaka Upanishad], Robert Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 368–377 with verse 1.2.4
9. ^{{cite book|author=Richard Salomon|title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the Other Indo-Aryan Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-4RDAAAQBAJ |year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509984-3|pages=200–201}}
10. ^Jörg Breu d. Ä. zugeschrieben, Idol von Calicut, in: Ludovico de Varthema, 'Die Ritterlich und lobwürdig Reisz', Strassburg 1516. (Bild: Völkerkundemuseum der Universität Zürich
11. ^¹{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83 |year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=83–84}}
12. ^{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year=2000|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=157–158}}
13. ^{{cite book|author=Linda Johnsen|title=The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UnLSNBBW5wcC&pg=PA83 |year=2002|publisher=Yes International Publishers|isbn=978-0-936663-28-9|pages=89–90}}
14. ^¹{{cite book|author1=Alf Hiltebeitel|author2=Kathleen M. Erndl|title=Is the Goddess a Feminist?: The Politics of South Asian Goddesses|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sQJzTr4c-g4C&pg=PA157|year =2000|publisher= New York University Press|isbn=978-0-8147-3619-7|pages=15–16}}
15. ^¹²{{cite book|author=J Gordon Melton|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_2J7W_2hQC&pg=PA239 |year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-206-7|pages=239–241}}
16. ^{{cite book |title= Religion & globalization: world religions in historical perspective |last= Esposito |first= John L. |author2=Darrell J Fasching |author3=Todd Vernon Lewis |year= 2007 |publisher= Oxford University Press |location= |isbn= 0-19-517695-2 |page= 341 |accessdate=}}
17. ^{{cite web|title=Article on Durga Puja|url=http://online.assam.gov.in/web/durga-puja}}
18. ^[https://books.google.com/books?id=hgTOZEyrVtIC Kinsley, David (1988) Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions]. University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-06339-2}} p. 95
19. ^{{cite book|author=Joanne Punzo Waghorne|title=Diaspora of the Gods: Modern Hindu Temples in an Urban Middle-Class World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QBLFbfUrsDIC&pg=PA222 |year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803557-2|pages=222–224}}
20. ^{{cite book|author=Hajime Nakamura|title=Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC&pg=PA315 |year=1980|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0272-8|page=315}}
21. ^Shoko Watanabe (1955), On Durga and Tantric Buddhism, Chizan Gakuho, number 18, pages 36-44
22. ^{{cite book|author=Louis-Frédéric|title=Buddhism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=35NQAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=978-2-08-013558-2|page=174}}
23. ^{{cite book|author=Bernard Faure|title=The Power of Denial: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HidpRwrmx4AC|year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1400825615|page=127}}
24. ^¹{{cite book|author=Miranda Eberle Shaw|title=Buddhist Goddesses of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MvDKOK1h3zMC&pg=PA241 |year=2006|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12758-1|pages=240–241}}
25. ^{{cite book|author=Lawrence A. Babb|title=Ascetics and kings in a Jain ritual culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5MRAQAAIAAJ |year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1538-4|pages=146–147, 157}}
26. ^{{cite book|author=Lisa Owen|title=Carving Devotion in the Jain Caves at Ellora |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUszAQAAQBAJ |year=2012|publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-90-04-20630-4|pages=111–112}}
27. ^¹{{cite book|author=Eleanor Nesbitt|title=Sikhism: A Very Short Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zD8SDAAAQBAJ |year=2016|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-106277-3|pages=108–109}}
28. ^{{cite book|author=John N. Miksic|title=Icons of Art: The Collections of the National Museum of Indonesia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZnpAAAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=BAB Pub. Indonesia|isbn=978-979-8926-25-9|pages=106, 224–238}}
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30. ^{{cite book|author1=Roy E Jordaan|author2=Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands)|title=In praise of Prambanan: Dutch essays on the Loro Jonggrang temple complex|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SrkYAAAAYAAJ|year=1996|publisher=KITLV Press|isbn=978-90-6718-105-1|pages=147–149}}
31. ^{{cite book|author=Trudy Jacobsen|title=Lost Goddesses: The Denial of Female Power in Cambodian History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9unZvFaiREC&pg=PA20 |year=2008|publisher=Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press|isbn=978-87-7694-001-0|pages=20–21 with figure 2.2 }}
32. ^{{cite book|author=Heidi Tan|title=Vietnam: from myth to modernity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4QOAQAAMAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Singapore: Asian Civilisations Museum|isbn=978-981-07-0012-6|pages=56, 62–63}}
33. ^{{cite book|author1=Catherine Noppe|author2=Jean-François Hubert|title=Art of Vietnam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efLpAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Parkstone|isbn=978-1-85995-860-5|page=104}}
34. ^{{cite web | title=Durga Puja – Hindu festival | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | year=2015 | url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Durga-Puja}}
35. ^{{cite book|author=Sabyasachi Bhattacharya|title=Vande Mataram, the Biography of a Song|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJqfAAAAMAAJ|year=2003|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-303055-3|pages=5, 90–99}}
36. ^{{cite book|author=Sumathi Ramaswamy|title=The Goddess and the Nation: Mapping Mother India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWfcoMnHU8gC&pg=PA107|year=2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-8223-9153-8|pages=106–108}}