“Enewetak Atoll”的意思、由来-开放百科全书

Enewetak Atoll ({{IPAc-en|ɛ|ˈ|n|iː|w|ə|ˌ|t|ɔː|k|,_|ˌ|ɛ|n|ɪ|ˈ|w|iː|t|ɔː|k}};^[2] also spelled Eniwetok Atoll or sometimes Eniewetok; {{lang-mh|Ānewetak}}, {{IPAc-mh|ya|yay|n|yoy|oy|we|wey|ey|T|hah|k}}, or {{lang|mh|Āne-wātak}}, {{IPAc-mh|ya|yay|n|yoy|oy|-|wa|way|ay|T|hah|k}}^[3]) is a large coral atoll of 40 islands in the Pacific Ocean and with its 664 people (as of 2011)^[1] forms a legislative district of the Ralik Chain of the Marshall Islands. With a land area total less than {{convert|5.85|km2|sqmi}}^[1], it is no higher than 5 meters and surrounds a deep central lagoon, {{convert|80|km|mi}} in circumference. It is the second-westernmost atoll of the Ralik Chain and is {{convert|305|km|mi}} west from Bikini Atoll.

It was held by the Japanese from 1914 until its capture by the United States in February of 1944, during World War II. Nuclear testing by the US totaling more than 30 megatons of TNT took place during the cold war; in 1977–1980, a concrete dome (the Runit Dome) was built on Runit Island to deposit radioactive soil and debris.^[4]

The Runit Dome is deteriorating and could be breached by a typhoon, though the sediments in the lagoon are even more radioactive than those which are contained.^[5]

Etymology

The U.S. government referred to the atoll as "Eniwetok" until 1974, when it changed its official spelling to "Enewetak" (along with many other Marshall Islands place names, to more properly reflect their pronunciation by the Marshall Islanders^[6]).

Geography

Enewetak Atoll formed atop a seamount. The seamount was formed in the late Cretaceous.^[7] This seamount is now about {{convert|1400|m|ft}} below sea level.^[8] It is made of basalt, and its depth is due to a general subsidence of the entire region and not because of erosion.^[9]

History

The first European visitor to Enewetak, Spanish explorer Alvaro de Saavedra, arrived on 10 October 1529.{{sfn|Hezel|1983|p=16-17}}^[11] He called the island "Los Jardines" (The Gardens). In 1794 sailors aboard the British merchant sloop Walpole called the islands "Brown's Range" (thus the Japanese name "Brown Atoll"). It was visited by about a dozen ships before the establishment of the German colony of the Marshall Islands in 1885. With the rest of the Marshalls, Enewetak was captured by the Imperial Japanese Navy in 1914 during World War I and mandated to the Empire of Japan by the League of Nations in 1920. The Japanese administered the island under the South Pacific Mandate, but mostly left affairs in hands of traditional local leaders until the start of World War II. The atoll, together with other part of Marshall Islands located to the west of 164°E, was placed under the governance of Pohnpei district during the Japanese administration period, and is different from rest of Marshall Islands.^[12]

In November 1942, the Japanese built an airfield on Engebi Island. As they used it only for refueling planes between Truk and islands to the east, no aviation personnel were stationed there and the island had only token defenses. When the Gilberts fell to the United States, the Imperial Japanese Army assigned defense of the atoll to the 1st Amphibious Brigade, formed from the 3rd Independent Garrison, which had previously been stationed in Manchukuo. The 1st Amphibious Brigade arrived on January 4, 1944. Some 2,586 of its 3,940 men were left to defend Eniwetok Atoll, supplemented by aviation personnel, civilian employees, and laborers. However, they were unable to finish the fortifications before the American attack came in February. During the ensuing Battle of Eniwetok, the Americans captured Enewetak in a five-day amphibious operation. Fighting mainly took place on Engebi Islet, site of the most important Japanese installation, although some combat occurred on the main islet of Enewetak itself and on Parry Island, where there was a Japanese seaplane base.

Following its capture, the anchorage at Enewetak became a major forward base for the U.S. Navy. The daily average of ships present during the first half of July 1944 was 488; during the second half of July the daily average number of ships at Enewetak was 283.^[13]

In 1950, John C. Woods, who executed the Nazi war criminals convicted at the Nuremberg Trials, was accidentally electrocuted here.

After the end of World War II, Enewetak came under the control of the United States as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until the independence of the Marshall Islands in 1986. During its tenure, the United States evacuated the local residents many times, often involuntarily.{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}} The atoll was used for nuclear testing as part of the Pacific Proving Grounds. Before testing commenced, the U.S. exhumed the bodies of United States servicemen killed in the Battle of Enewetak and returned them to the United States to be re-buried by their families. Forty-three nuclear tests were fired at Enewetak from 1948 to 1958.^[14]

The first hydrogen bomb test, code-named Ivy Mike, occurred in late 1952 as part of Operation Ivy; it vaporized the islet of Elugelab. This test included B-17 Flying Fortress drones to fly through the radioactive cloud to test onboard samples. B-17 mother ships controlled the drones while flying within visual distance of them. In all 16 to 20 B-17s took part in this operation, of which half were controlling aircraft and half were drones. To examine the explosion clouds of the nuclear bombs in 1957/58 several rockets (mostly from rockoons) were launched. One USAF airman was lost at sea during the tests.

A radiological survey of Enewetak was conducted from 1972 to 1973.^[15] In 1977, the United States military began decontamination of Enewetak and other islands. During the three-year, US$100 million cleanup process, the military mixed more than {{convert|80000|m3|cuyd}} of contaminated soil and debris^[16] from the islands with Portland cement and buried it in an atomic blast crater on the northern end of the atoll's Runit Island.^[17]^[18] The material was placed in the {{convert|9.1|m|ft|adj=on}} deep, {{convert|110|m|ft|adj=on}} wide crater created by the May 5, 1958, "Cactus" nuclear weapons test. A dome composed of 358 concrete panels, each {{convert|46|cm|in}} thick, was constructed over the material. The final cost of the cleanup project was US$239 million.^[16] The United States government declared the southern and western islands in the atoll safe for habitation in 1980,^[19] and residents of Enewetak returned that same year.^[20] The military members who participated in that cleanup mission are suffering from many health issues, but the U.S. Government is refusing to provide health coverage. ^[21]

Section 177 of the 1983 Compact of Free Association between the governments of the United States and the Marshall Islands^[22] establishes a process for Marshallese to make a claim against the United States government as a result of damage and injury caused by nuclear testing. That same year, an agreement was signed to implement Section 177 which established a US$150 million trust fund. The fund was intended to generate US$18 million a year, which would be payable to claimants on an agreed-upon schedule. If the US$18 million a year generated by the fund was not enough to cover claims, the principal of the fund could be used.^[23]^[24] A Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal was established to adjudicate claims. In 2000, the tribunal made a compensation award to the people of Enewetak consisting of US$107.8 million for environmental restoration; US$244 million in damages to cover economic losses caused by loss of access and use of the atoll; and US$34 million for hardship and suffering.^[24] In addition, as of the end of 2008, another US$96.658 million in individual damage awards were made. Only US$73.526 million of the individual claims award has been paid, however, and no new awards were made between the end of 2008 and May 2010.^[24] Due to stock market losses, payments rates that have outstripped fund income, and other issues, the fund was nearly exhausted as of May 2010 and unable to make any additional awards or payments.^[24] A lawsuit by Marshallese arguing that "changed circumstances" made Nuclear Claims Tribunal unable to make just compensation was dismissed by the Supreme Court of the United States in April 2010.^[25]

The 2000 environmental restoration award included funds for additional cleanup of radioactivity on Enewetak. Rather than scrape the topsoil off, replace it with clean topsoil, and create another radioactive waste repository dome at some site on the atoll (a project estimated to cost US$947 million), most areas still contaminated on Enewetak were treated with potassium.^[26] Soil that could not be effectively treated for human use was removed and used as fill for a causeway connecting the two main islands of the atoll (Enewetak and Parry). The cost of the potassium decontamination project was US$103.3 million.^[24]

It is projected that the majority of the atoll will be fit for human habitation by the year 2026–2027 after nuclear decay, de-contamination and environmental remediation efforts create sufficient dose reductions.^[27] However, in November 2017, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that rising sea levels caused by climate change are seeping inside the dome, causing radioactive material to leak out.^[28]

Education

Eniwetok Airfield

Men from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion arrived on Eniwetok between 21 and 27 February 1944 and began clearing the island for construction of a bomber airfield. A {{convert|2100|m|ft|adj=on}} by {{convert|120|m|ft|adj=on}} runway with taxiways and supporting facilities was built. The first plane landed on 11 March. By 5 April the first operational bombing mission was conducted.{{sfn|Bureau of Yards and Docks|1947|p=325}}

In mid-September 1944 operations at Wrigley Airfield on Engebi Island were transferred to Eniwetok.{{sfn|Bureau of Yards and Docks|1947|p=326}}

Parry Island seaplane base

The Imperial Japanese Navy had developed a seaplane base on Parry Island. Following its capture on 22 February, Seebees from the 110th Naval Construction Battalion expanded the base, building a coral-surfaced parking area and shops for minor aircraft and engine overhaul. A marine ways was installed on a Japanese pier and boat-repair shops were also erected.{{sfn|Bureau of Yards and Docks|1947|p=325}}

List of nuclear tests at Eniwetok

Summary

Operation Sandstone

Operation Greenhouse

Operation Ivy

Operation Castle

Operation Redwing

Operation Hardtack I

Gallery

Notes

1. ^¹²³{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/Marshall.html |title=Marshall Islands |last=Brinkhoff |first=Thomas |date=2012-07-19 |website=City Population |publisher= |access-date=2019-01-30}}
2. ^{{Cite Oxford Dictionaries|Eniwetok}}
3. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.trussel2.com/MOD/LocA.htm#%C4%80newetak|title=Marshallese-English Dictionary - Place Name Index|website=www.trussel2.com}}
4. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.utaot.com/2013/01/25/the-nuclear-trash-can-of-the-pacific-on-enewetak-atoll|title=Enewetak Atoll – nuclear trash can of the pacific – UTAOT|website=www.utaot.com}}
5. ^[https://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/04/opinion/a-pacific-isle-radioactive-and-forgotten.html A Pacific isle radioactive and forgotten], The New York Times, Michael B. Gerrard, December 3, 2014. Retrieved 19 September 2016.
6. ^{{cite book |first=Barton C. |last=Hacker |title=Elements of controversy : the Atomic Energy Commission and radiation safety in nuclear weapons testing, 1947–1974 |location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=University of California Press |year=1994 |page=14 |isbn=0520083237 }}
7. ^{{cite book |last=Clouard |first=Valerie |last2=Bonneville |first2=Alain |chapter=Ages of Seamounts, Islands and Plateaus on the Pacific Plate |title=Plates, Plumes, and Paradigms |editor1-first=Gillian R. |editor1-last=Foulger |editor2-first=James H. |editor2-last=Natland |editor3-first=Dean C. |editor3-last=Presnall |editor4-first=Don L. |display-editors = 3 |editor4-last=Anderson |location=Boulder, Colo. |publisher=Geological Society of America |year=2005 |pages=71–90 [p. 80] |isbn=0813723884 }}
8. ^{{cite journal |last=Ludwig |first=K. R. |last2=Halley |first2=R. B. |last3=Simmons |first3=K. R. |last4=Peterman |first4=Z. E. |title=Strontium-Isotope Stratigraphy of Enewetak Atoll |journal=Geology |volume=16 |issue=2 |year=1988 |pages=173–177 [p. 173–174] |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0173:SISOEA>2.3.CO;2 }}
9. ^{{cite book |last=Schlanger |first=S. O. |last2=Campbell |first2=J. F. |last3=Jackson |first3=M. W. |chapter=Post-Eocene subsidence of the Marshall Islands Recorded By Drowned Atolls on Harrie and Sylvania Guyots |title=Seamounts, Islands, and Atolls |series=Geophysical Monograph Series |volume=43 |editor-first=B. H. |editor1-last=Keating |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=American Geophysical Union |year=1987 |pages=165–174 [p. 173] |isbn=0875900682 |display-editors=etal}}
10. ^{{cite journal |last=Munk |first=Walter |last2=Day |first2=Deborah |title=Ivy-Mike |journal=Oceanography |volume=17 |issue=2 |year=2004 |pages=97–105 [p. 98] |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2004.53 }}
11. ^Brand, Donald D. The Pacific Basin: A History of its Geographical Explorations The American Geographical Society, New York, 1967, p.122
12. ^{{cite web|url=http://teikoku-denmo.jp/history/honbun/dainanyou.html|title=昔はサイパンもパラオも「日本」だった ── 日本の南洋群島統治|website=teikoku-denmo.jp}}
13. ^Carter, Worrall Reed. [https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/b/beans-bullets-black-oil.html Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific During World War II.] Washington, D.C.: Department of the Navy, 1953, p. 163.
14. ^Diehl, Sarah and Moltz, James Clay. Nuclear Weapons and Nonproliferation: A Reference Book. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2002, p. 208.
15. ^Johnson, Giff. "Paradise Lost." Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. December 1980, p. 27.
16. ^¹Schwartz, Stephen I. Atomic Audit: The Costs and Consequences of U.S. Nuclear Weapons Since 1940. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1998, p. 380.
17. ^Johnson, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, p. 24.
18. ^A 15 kiloton nuclear weapon exploded but did not undergo nuclear fission on Runit, scattering plutonium over the island. Runit Island is not habitable for the next 24,000 years, which is why it was chosen for the nuclear waste repository. See: Wargo, John. Green Intelligence: Creating Environments That Protect Human Health. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009, p. 15.
19. ^The government said that the northern islands would not be safe for inhabitation until 2010. See: Johnson, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, p. 25.
20. ^Linsley, Gordon. "Site Restoration and Cleanup of Contaminated Areas." In Current Trends in Radiation Protection: On the Occasion of the 11th International Congress of the International Radiation Protection Association, 23–28 May 2004, Madrid, Spain. Henri Métivier, Leopoldo Arranz, Eduardo Gallego, and Annie Sugier, eds. Les Ulis: EDP Sciences, 2004, p. 142.
21. ^{{cite news |first=Dave |last=Philipps |title=Troops Who Cleaned Up Radioactive Islands Can’t Get Medical Care |work=The New York Times|date=Jan 28, 2017 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/28/us/troops-radioactive-islands-medical-care.html}}
22. ^The Compact was ratified by both nations in 1986.
23. ^Louka, Elli. Nuclear Weapons, Justice and the Law. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2011, p. 161-162.
24. ^¹²³⁴Graham, Bill. "Written Testimony of Bill Graham, Public Advocate (retired), Marshall Islands Nuclear Claims Tribunal." Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific, and the Global Environment. Committee on Foreign Affairs. United States House of Representatives. May 20, 2010. Accessed 2012-11-01.
25. ^{{cite news |last=Richey |first=Warren |title=Supreme Court: No Review of Award for US Nuclear Weapons Tests |work=Christian Science Monitor |date=April 5, 2010 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2010/0405/Supreme-Court-No-review-of-award-for-US-nuclear-weapons-tests}}
26. ^Cesium, which is highly radioactive, is chemically similar to potassium. Since the atoll is deficient in potassium, plants absorb cesium from the ground instead. This makes the plants inedible. Cesium also is deposited in the muscles of the human body, just as potassium is. See: {{cite book |last=Firth |first=Stewart |title=Nuclear Playground |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1987 |page=36 |isbn=0824811445 }}
27. ^¹{{cite web |url=http://wlstorage.net/file/crs/RL33029.pdf |title=Loss-of-Damages From U.S. Nuclear Testing in the Marshall Islands: Technical Analysis of the Nuclear Claims Tribunal Methodology and Alternative Estimate}}
28. ^{{cite news |last=Willacy|first=Mark|title=A poison in tour island|work=ABC |date=November 27, 2017 |accessdate=November 27, 2017|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-11-27/the-dome-runit-island-nuclear-test-leaking-due-to-climate-change/9161442}}
29. ^"Public Schools." Marshall Islands Public School System. Retrieved on February 21, 2018.
30. ^"Annual Report 2011-2012." Ministry of Education (Marshall Islands). Retrieved on February 22, 2018. p. 54 (PDF p. 55/118). "Marshall Islands High Schools{{sic}} takes students from Ratak Rak zone including schools in Majuro, Arno, Mili, and Enewetak/Mejatto."
31. ^{{cite book|last=Carey|first=Alan|title=The Reluctant Raiders: The Story of United States Navy Bombing Squadron VB/VPB-109 During World War II |publisher=Schiffer Publishing|year=1999|isbn=9780764307577|page=64}}
32. ^{{cite book|last=Morison |first=Samuel|title=History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Volume VI: Aleutians, Gilberts and Marshalls, June 1942-April 1944|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|year=1975|page=306}}