词条 | Food additive |
释义 |
NumberingTo regulate these additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number, termed as "E numbers", which is used in Europe for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission to internationally identify all additives,[2] regardless of whether they are approved for use. E numbers are all prefixed by "E", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not. For example, acetic acid is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, alkannin, is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1987, Australia has had an approved system of labelling for additives in packaged foods. Each food additive has to be named or numbered. The numbers are the same as in Europe, but without the prefix "E". The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists these items as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS);[3] they are listed under both their Chemical Abstracts Service number and FDA regulation under the United States Code of Federal Regulations.
CategoriesFood additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap because some additives exert more than one effect. For example, salt is both a preservative as well as a flavor.[4][5]
Safety and regulationWith the increasing use of processed foods since the 19th century, food additives are more widely used. Many countries regulate their use. For example, boric acid was widely used as a food preservative from the 1870s to the 1920s,[7][8] but was banned after World War I due to its toxicity, as demonstrated in animal and human studies. During World War II, the urgent need for cheap, available food preservatives led to it being used again, but it was finally banned in the 1950s.[7] Such cases led to a general mistrust of food additives, and an application of the precautionary principle led to the conclusion that only additives that are known to be safe should be used in foods. In the United States, this led to the adoption of the Delaney clause, an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, stating that no carcinogenic substances may be used as food additives. However, after the banning of cyclamates in the United States and Britain in 1969, saccharin, the only remaining legal artificial sweetener at the time, was found to cause cancer in rats. Widespread public outcry in the United States, partly communicated to Congress by postage-paid postcards supplied in the packaging of sweetened soft drinks, led to the retention of saccharin, despite its violation of the Delaney clause.[9] However, in 2000, saccharin was found to be carcinogenic in rats due only to their unique urine chemistry.[10][11] HyperactivityPeriodically, concerns have been expressed about a linkage between additives and hyperactivity,[12] however "no clear evidence of ADHD was provided".[13] In 2007, Food Standards Australia New Zealand published an official shoppers' guidance with which the concerns of food additives and their labeling are mediated.[14] In the EU it can take 10 years or more to obtain approval for a new food additive. This includes five years of safety testing, followed by two years for evaluation by the European Food Safety Authority and another three years before the additive receives an EU-wide approval for use in every country in the European Union.[15] Apart from testing and analyzing food products during the whole production process to ensure safety and compliance with regulatory standards, Trading Standards officers (in the UK) protect the public from any illegal use or potentially dangerous mis-use of food additives by performing random testing of food products.[16] There has been significant controversy associated with the risks and benefits of food additives.[17] Natural additives may be similarly harmful or be the cause of allergic reactions in certain individuals. For example, safrole was used to flavor root beer until it was shown to be carcinogenic. Due to the application of the Delaney clause, it may not be added to foods, even though it occurs naturally in sassafras and sweet basil.[18] MicronutrientsA subset of food additives, micronutrients added in food fortification processes preserve nutrient value by providing vitamins and minerals to foods such as flour, cereal, margarine and milk which normally would not retain such high levels. Preservatives also reduce spoilage from sources such as air, bacteria, fungi, and yeast.[19] Standardization of its derived productsISO has published a series of standards regarding the topic and these standards are covered by ICS 67.220.[20]ScienceMany food additives absorb radiation in the ultraviolet or visible regions of the spectrum. This absorbance can be used to determine the concentration of an additive in a sample using external calibration. However, additives may occur together and the absorbance by one could interfere with the absorbance of another. A prior separation stage is necessary and the additives are first separated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and then determined on-line using a UV and/or visible light detector. See also{{portal|Food}}{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
References1. ^{{cite web |title=Food Ingredients and Packaging Terms |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/Definitions/default.htm |publisher=FDA |accessdate=9 September 2018 |language=en |date=January 4, 2018}} 2. ^{{Cite news | last1 = Codex Alimentarius | title = Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives. | url = http://www.fao.org/tempref/codex/Meetings/CCFAC/ccfac31/INS_e.pdf}} 3. ^See also "Food Additives", Food and Drug Administration website 4. ^Erich Lück and Gert-Wolfhard von Rymon Lipinski "Foods, 3. Food Additives" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI| 10.1002/14356007.a11_561}} 5. ^1 {{cite web|title=Food Additives & Ingredients - Overview of Food Ingredients, Additives & Colors|url=https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm094211.htm#foodadd|publisher=FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition|accessdate=11 April 2017|language=en}} 6. ^{{cite news |title=Press release: Some Common Food Additives May Pose Health Risks to Children |url=https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/Pages/AAP-Says-Some-Common-Food-Additives-May-Pose-Health-Risks-to-Children.aspx |work=American Academy of Pediatrics |date=July 23, 2018}} 7. ^1 {{cite book |author=Bucci, Luke |title=Nutrition applied to injury rehabilitation and sports medicine |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton |year=1995 |pages=151 |isbn=0-8493-7913-X |oclc= |doi=}} 8. ^{{cite book | author=Rev. Lyman Abbott (Ed.) | title = The Outlook (Vol. 65)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=__bt37n7ncQC&q=boric+acid+outlook&dq=boric+acid+outlook&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBWoVChMI59n13MDwyAIVV-NjCh2v2A6V| publisher = Outlook Co. | year = 1900 | pages = 403}} 9. ^{{cite book | title = Assessment of technologies for determining cancer risks from the environment | publisher = DIANE publishing | year = 1981 | location = Darby, Pennsylvania, USA | pages = 177 | isbn = 1-4289-2437-X }} 10. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Whysner | first1 = J. | last2 = Williams | first2 = GM. | title = Saccharin mechanistic data and risk assessment: urine composition, enhanced cell proliferation, and tumor promotion | journal = Pharmacol Ther | volume = 71 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 225–52 | year = 1996 | doi = 10.1016/0163-7258(96)00069-1| pmid = 8910956 }} 11. ^{{Cite journal | last1 = Dybing | first1 = E. | title = Development and implementation of the IPCS conceptual framework for evaluating mode of action of chemical carcinogens | journal = Toxicology | volume = 181-182 | issue = | pages = 121–5 |date=December 2002 | doi = 10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00266-4| pmid = 12505296 }} 12. ^{{cite journal | last1 = McCann | first1 = D | last2 = Barrett | first2 = A | last3 = Cooper | first3 = A | last4 = Crumpler | first4 = D | last5 = Dalen | first5 = L | last6 = Grimshaw | first6 = K | last7 = Kitchin | first7 = E | last8 = Lok | first8 = K | last9 = Porteous | first9 = L | last10 = Prince | first10 = Emily | last11 = Sonuga-Barke | first11 = Edmund | last12 = Warner | first12 = John O | last13 = Stevenson | first13 = Jim | year = 2007 | title = Food additives and hyperactive behaviour in 3-year-old and 8/9-year-old children in the community: a randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial | periodical = Lancet | volume = 370 | issue = 9598 | pages = 1560–7 | pmid = 17825405 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61306-3| display-authors = 8 }} 13. ^Amchova, Petra; Kotolova, Hana; Ruda-Kucerova, Jana "Health safety issues of synthetic food colorants" Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology (2015), 73(3), 914-922.{{doi|10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.09.026}} 14. ^{{cite web| last =Food Standards Australia New Zealand| first =| authorlink =| coauthors =| title =Choosing the Right Stuff - the official shoppers’ guide to food additives and labels, kilojoules and fat content| work =| publisher =| year =2007| url =http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/publications/choosingtherightstuff/| doi =| accessdate =3 May 2009| deadurl =yes| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20090514070251/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/publications/choosingtherightstuff/| archivedate =14 May 2009| df =}} 15. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.understandingfoodadditives.org/pages/Ch3p1.htm|title=Loading...|website=www.understandingfoodadditives.org}} 16. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.understandingfoodadditives.org/pages/Ch3p2.htm|title=Loading...|website=www.understandingfoodadditives.org}} 17. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/diet/features/the-truth-about-seven-common-food-additives|publisher=WebMD|title=The Truth About 7 Common Food Additives|date=17 December 2008|author=Martin Downs, MPH}} 18. ^{{cite book |author=Fennema, Owen R. |title=Food chemistry |publisher=Marcel Dekker |location=New York, N.Y |year=1996 |pages=827 |isbn=0-8247-9691-8 |oclc= |doi=}} 19. ^IFIC. Food Additives Nutrition - Nutrition, Function, Side Effects - NY Times Health Information. Available from: http://health.nytimes.com/health/guides/nutrition/food-additives/overview.html 20. ^{{cite web | last = International Organization for Standardization | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = 67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives | work = | publisher = | date = | url = http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220 | doi = | accessdate = 23 April 2009 }} Additional sources
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