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词条 Filipino-American health
释义

  1. Measurement of health of the Filipino American population

      Hypertension    Cancer    Depression    Tuberculosis  

  2. Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors

      Dietary Acculturation    Medical system    Prevention and healing practices    Religion   Traditional healers   Herbal remedies    Colonial Mentality    Reasons for illnesses   Natural vs unnatural illnesses   Filipino Health superstitions  

  3. References

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The Filipino American identity comprises principles from both the Philippines and the United States. Although the meaning of identity differs from one individual to another, the fundamental factors are the same. History, socio-economic status, culture, and education are all indirect factors that influences the identity of an ethnic group; thus, they are also reflective of a group's health beliefs and practices.[1]

The ethnic differences between the Philippines and the United States are influential on the health practices and behaviors of Filipino Americans; however, these differences can also be regarded as being on opposite ends of a spectrum.[2] While it is apparent that the United States exhibits a greater Western approach to health care than Eastern medicine, the health care practices in the Philippines reflect both traditional medicine as well as Western medicine. Due to the historical ties between the United States and the Philippines and societal progression, the healthcare practices of the Philippines also have an allopathic influence.

In reference to the different healthcare approaches of the United States and the Philippines, it is evident that both healthcare strategies and indirect factors are reflected in the health lifestyle of Filipino Americans.[2] Socio-cultural factors such as established medical systems, religion, and superstitious belief are influential indirect factors of Filipino American health.

Measurement of health of the Filipino American population

Health indicators are key in analyzing the overall public health of the Filipino American population.[1] Main health indicators of a particular population include mortality and morbidity. By analyzing these statistics, the effect of certain health practices of the Filipino American population can be determined. Other important health indicators include leading cause of death, life expectancy, neo-natal mortality rate, and the maternal mortality ratio.[3]

Hypertension

Based on reports of Filipino American communities throughout the United States, specifically in higher population areas of Filipinos, there is a history of a higher prevalence of hypertension exhibited among Filipino American men and women than in other ethnic communities within the United States second to African Americans.[4] In addition, the prevalence of hypertension was greater within Filipino American communities than Filipinos living in the Philippines.[5] There are behavior-related risk factors related with hypertension. These factors include reduced physical activity levels and excess dietary sodium intake from foods.[8] In addition to hypertension, Filipino Americans have a history of cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

Cancer

In general, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and strokes are the leading cause of death for Filipino Americans.[6] For Filipino men, the greatest health concern is cardiovascular disease and diabetes, whereas breast cancer is the leading cause of death among female Filipino Americans.[7] The prevalence of cancer is higher among Filipino Americans in comparison to other ethnic groups of the United States, which is reflective in their associated low cancer screening rates.[8] Westernized diets and behaviors are considerably influential on the high cancer risk of the Filipino American community.[8] Other factors such as acculturation, lack of targeted educational programs, and socio-economic status influence the morbidity and mortality rates of Filipino Americans.[8]

Depression

{{Further|Mental health of Filipino Americans}}

It is common among immigrant groups to experience difficulties with acculturation upon arrival. and Filipino Americans share similar mental health effects to other Asian American groups.[9] In this case, Filipino Americans struggle with cultural alienation, stress from separation, and societal discrimination.[6] Filipinos may struggle with assimilation due to separation from family and financial struggles, which contributes to clinical depression.[16] It is found that Filipino men commit suicide more than Filipino women.[10] About 27% of Filipino Americans within the New York community were found to have some level of depression.[6]

Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis cases are highly prevalent among Filipino Americans. The Philippines is ranked the ninth on the list of top countries with high incidence and prevalence of tuberculosis.[11] Poverty and health care disparities are major contributors of the tuberculosis epidemic within the Philippines.[11] Filipino immigrants have the highest amount of tuberculosis diagnoses among all Asian immigrant groups.[12] The difference between the tuberculosis incidence rate of Filipino Americans and United States born citizens is more than tenfold.[11]

Influence of Socio-Cultural Factors

Filipino Americans are often associated under the umbrella of 'Asian' and 'American'; thus, it is appropriate to consider both the Filipino and American cultural influences in order to determine the understand the root of Filipino American health practices and behaviors.[13] Since culture is a defining aspect of ethnic identities - both demographically and socially - its components can be reflective of particular attitudes and practices, such as health behaviors.[14]

Filipino Americans are least likely to seek support from professional mental health providers. These variables include fear of shame as well as effects of oppression, indicated by racial discrimination and cultural mistrust. Filipino Americans turn to get support through more indigenous coping strategies, such as religion, spirituality, or family as sources for help.[15]

Dietary Acculturation

{{Further|Filipino-American cuisine}}

Dietary acculturation is the change in eating patterns due to adopting new diets that occurs when members of the minority group adopt eating patterns of mainstream society.[16] High degree of dietary acculturation is associated with poorer dietary habits.[17] Immigration to the US is associated with increased consumption of fats, sweets, dairy products but decreased consumption of meats and vegetables.

As Filipino Americans acculturate in terms of their diets, they practice bicultural patterns that reflect both a preference for food that is American and traditionally Filipino.[17] The Western dietary acculturation scale, which measures Western eating patterns that include a high intake of fat and sugar, was a significant predictor of the increase in body mass index (BMI) and weight in Filipino Americans.[18] High salt intake is a feature of both the Filipino and Western diet; Filipino Americans are typically aware that their traditional cultural foods have high levels of sodium and fat, which is associated with an increased risk for hypertension.[8]

Medical system

Medical beliefs and practices are constructed based on an individual’s perspective of the world.[19] Socio-cultural influences are considerable factors that determine an individual’s belief about disease and treatment.[19] Based on this understanding, ethnic groups (typically groups of Third World countries), follow a holistic approach to health care; thus, encompassing physical, psychological, and spiritual practices that are differentiated from Western medicine.[19]

Folk medicine is not the only medical system used by Filipinos. In general, Filipino health practices are based on biological, spiritual, and personal understandings.[19] In particular, Filipinos support two contrasting medical systems of western medicine and alternative medicine, otherwise referred to as holistic healing.[19] It is a blended health belief system of both biological and supernatural causes to illnesses. Generally, Filipinos consider multiple factors that contribute a particular illness and rarely believe in a sole cause of disease.[19] An individual may consider a natural over a non-natural cause for an illness depending on their socio-cultural influences.

Prevention and healing practices

Further information: Indigenous Medicine, Alternative Medicine

Religion

The Filipino American identity is significantly influenced by cultural aspects of traditional values and religion. During the colonization of the Philippines by Spain, Catholicism was incorporated into the culture of Filipinos. As of 2015, Catholicism is still a dominating religion within the Philippines that influences the identity of Philippine society.[20] Based on the Spanish colonial Christian influences and the predominant Catholic upbringing of Filipinos, religious affiliations are greatly considered by Filipino Americans as a source of health relief.[21] Religion is used for preventative and treatment measures.[22] For example, the phrase, bahala na is a common expression used as to provide psychological comfort.[23] This phrase is commonly translated to it’s up to God.[22] Another common saying utang na loog is in reference of being granted a blessing from an answered prayer by God, the Virgin Mary, or a patron saint.[24] In addition to a religious background, the Filipino culture also considers spiritual elements as reasons for disease. Oftentimes, spiritual factors are also considered for treatments.[22] Filipino Americans of a traditional, Catholic derived influence tend to seek guidance and affirmation from spiritual or religious references.[22]Higher members of the Roman Catholic Church, such as ministers and priests, are considered under the category of faith healers.[19] Whether it involves rituals for a specific individual or a large ceremonial mass, it is related to providing preventative measures and relief. A major component of faith healing by the Roman Catholic Church is the involvement of miracle cures for diseases.[19] As indicated by Henderson and Primeaux, the confirmation of miracle cures are based on four criteria – reasonable, instantaneous, evidence of cure, and natural explanations must be ruled implausible.[19]

Further examples of Philippine faith healing include reliance on religious ceremonies and seeking of aid from patron saints. Specifically, Filipinos relate their well-being with prayer recitations, display of religious figures, and observation of religious occasions.[22] These occasions involve the celebration of religious holidays, the attendance of Holy Hour, reconciliations, baptisms, confirmations, and weddings.[22] In addition, religious entities are often prayed to. It is believed by Filipino Americans of Catholic upbringing that the signs and symptoms of a particular illness will either be alleviated or some type of support and stability will be provided.[22] Filipinos heavily rely on their faith for health stability and support during the onset of an illness.[22] The use of religion and spirituality as a reference for an individual’s well-being can be regarded as an acceptance mechanism that affect which health precautions are taken.[22]

It is arguable that religion is a major component of Filipino-American health behaviors. According to, it is not plausible to assume that familiarity is the sole factor that influences Filipino Americans to adopt a religious influence on health practices. However, there are studies find that Filipino Americans are more comfortable and willing to seek not only spiritual guidance from community institutions that are able to relate culturally.[22] Those of Filipino descent have behaviors that reflect personalism in which Filipinos prefer to interact with others who they find most compatible with.[22] Often, this familiarity and comfort is based on similar values and culture affiliations. Specifically, mental care services are avoided based on language barriers and other cultural differences.[25] Most Filipino Americans tend to seek religious officials as their first choice of support rather than that of health care professionals.[25][26] An explanation for the preference for health care services is due to the influence of historical Catholic ties of Filipino Americans.[24]

Traditional healers

Further information: Faith HealingFaith healers are able to enter a partially conscious state in which they are possessed by religious identities.[22] During this trance, faith healers obtain different characteristics and mannerisms, such as healing abilities.[22] Common holy figures that are highly worshiped in the Philippines, such as Santo Niño and the Virgin Mary, are channeled through faith healers. Consequently, devout believers experience a sense of guidance and aid.[22]

Other than trance states, there are sects of traditional healers that encourage others to focus on proper nutrition for the care of the body. Faith healers often focus on dietary needs and recommend herbal remedies.[19] In addition, some faith healers advise those who are ill to seek health clinics for further help.[22] When patients are not recovering they are highly encouraged to take doctor-prescribed medications and, if needed, hospitalization.[19]

Herbal remedies

Further information: Herbalism

Most traditional Asian American cultures follow health care practices that are reflected of Chinese medicine.[19] Chinese medicine involves disciplines in acupuncture and nutrition, with herbology being a common regimen.[19] Herbal treatments are relied on by Filipino Americans that have not been considered assimilated or rather acculturated to the American culture.[22] Indigenous herbal treatments issued by faith healers are encouraged to provide a balance of energy and diet. Particular blends of herbs are specific to certain ailments.[19] With the guidance of faith healers in Chinese medicine disciplines, the treatments are believed to help align the elements within the human body, which in turn will be reflected in one’s immune defense and, moreover, cause a significant decrease in one’s susceptibility to disease.[19]

Colonial Mentality

Colonial mentality, a form of internalized oppression that considers anything American to be favorable to anything Filipino, plays an important role in the psychological well-being of Filipino Americans. Overt colonial mentality plays a negative role in Filipino Americans' psychological health by discriminating against less Americanized Filipino Americans while putting down Filipino features, characteristics, and values.[15] Overt colonial mentality appears to contribute negatively to psychological health by discriminating against less Americanized Filipino Americans while putting down Filipino features, characteristics, and values. Covert colonial mentality appears to contribute to negatively to the "Americanized" Filipino American by inducing feelings of shame and inferiority over their own Filipino identity.[15]

Colonial mentality and mental health help-seeking attitudes have established links with acculturation and enculturation. Colonial mentality increases willingness to acculturation or the extent to which a Filipino becomes more Americanized. Enculturation is a negative correlate to colonial mentality in that colonial mentality decreases as Filipino Americans become more enculturated.[27] The more acculturated the individual is, the more likely the individual have a positive attitude toward seeking help while more enculturated individuals tend to have more negative attitudes toward help-seeking.[27]

Acculturation is related to several types of psychological distress: lower academic achievement, depression, body dissatisfaction, eating disturbances , less social support, and weaker familial relationships.[27] Enculturation has been shown to be a protective factor against depression.

Reasons for illnesses

Natural vs unnatural illnesses

The cause of illnesses are distinguished into categories of natural and unnatural illnesses.[19] Natural illnesses are based on sicknesses derived that involve external conditions.[19] Examples of natural illnesses include from exposure to extreme temperatures of hot or cold or transmission of microbes from contaminated sources.[19] Unnatural illnesses are described as sicknesses being obtained due to the lack of commitment to one’s faith. The lack of commitment whether it be by sin or a lack of attention to religious practices, the Lord would retract his protection over the individual; thus, making him susceptible to evil influences and ultimately illnesses. It is believed by multiple cultural groups. Evil influences include supernatural forces as well as vengeful spirits - both ancestral and non-ancestral spirits.

Filipino Health superstitions

  1. Pasma: Pasma is an illness believed to be caused by an exposure to hot and cold temperatures simultaneously. Symptoms are hot flashes and consistent perspiration of hands and feet. Preventative measures involves the wiping of sweat before it dries on the skin.&91;22&93; Traditional healers can detect pasma by noticing pulse patterns.&91;22&93; Faith healers regard pulses as crucial indicators of multiple illnesses.&91;22&93; The belief of pasma is likely originated from Latin America.&91;19&93;
  2. The spontaneous fainting of an individual without an apparent natural explanation is believed that it is due to multiple spirits yearning to deliver message to the living.&91;28&93; This sudden illness is derived from an Ilocano superstition.&91;28&93;
  3. Detrimental diseases can be obtained due to improper handling of clothes.&91;28&93; According to indigenous Ilocano belief, when clothes that were hung out to dry were forgotten one must wait until the next morning before gathering.&91;28&93; In addition, if a pregnant woman does not wear clean clothes the health of the child is at risk.&91;28&93;
  4. Death occurs when hair is combed at night.&91;29&93;
  5. Illness will occur if you see a black cat cross your path.&91;29&93;
  6. Anting-Anting: A crocodile or hog tooth is worn as a charm for protection against harm.&91;29&93;
  7. Effective medicine is obtained when roots are gathered on Good Friday.&91;29&93;

References

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2. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Becker|first=Gay|date=|title=Cultural expressions of bodily awareness among chronically ill Filipino Americans|url=|journal=Annals of Family Medicine|volume=1|pages=113–118}}
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15. ^1 2 Tuazon, Anna Cristina (May 2013). "Colonial Mentality and Mental Health Help-Seeking Attitudes Among Filipino Americans". Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology – via UMI Dissertation Publishing.
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17. ^1 Dela Cruz, Lao (2013). "Level of acculturation, food intake, dietary changes, and health status of first-generation Filipino Americans in Southern California". Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners. 25(11): 619–630.
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25. ^1 {{Cite journal|last=Abe-Kim|first=Jennifer|last2=Gong|first2=Fang|last3=Takeuchi|first3=David|date=|title=Religiosity, spirituality, and help-seeking among Filipino Americans: Religious clergy or mental health professionals?|url=|journal=Journal of Community Psychology|volume=32|pages=675–689}}
26. ^1 2 {{Cite journal|last=Dela Cruz|first=Felicitas|last2=Galang|first2=Carmen|date=|title=The illness beliefs, perceptions, and practices of Filipino Americans with hypertension|url=|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Nurse Practitioners|volume=20|pages=118–127}}
27. ^1 2 Cotas, Arwin (March 2017). ""How Filipino Are You?": Strengthening the Construct Validity of the Enculturation Scale for Filipino Americans". Wright Institute Graduate School of Psychology – via Proquest.
28. ^1 2 3 4 {{Cite book|title=El Folk-lore Filipino|last=de los Reyes|first=Isabelo|publisher=|year=1194|isbn=|location=|pages=}}
29. ^1 2 3 {{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Hannah Pearl|date=|title=The superstitious life of the Filipino|url=|journal=Western Folklore|volume=16|pages=27–36}}

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