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词条 John Snow
释义

  1. Early life and education

  2. Career

  3. Anaesthesia

      Obstetric anaesthesia  

  4. Cholera

      Political controversy  

  5. Later life

  6. Legacy and honours

  7. See also

  8. References

  9. Sources

  10. External links

{{about|the physician}}{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}{{Use British English|date=August 2017}}{{Infobox scientist
|name = John Snow
|image = John Snow.jpg
|caption =
|birth_date = {{birth date|1813|03|15|df=yes}}
|birth_place = York, United Kingdom
|death_date = {{death date and age|1858|06|16|1813|03|15|df=yes}}
|death_place = London, United Kingdom
|citizenship = British
|nationality = English
|alma_mater = University of London
|known_for = Anaesthesia
Locating source of a cholera outbreak (thus establishing the disease as water-borne)
|field = Anaesthesia
Epidemiology
}}John Snow (15 March 1813 – 16 June 1858[1]) was an English physician and a leader in the development of anaesthesia and medical hygiene. He is considered one of the fathers of modern epidemiology, in part because of his work in tracing the source of a cholera outbreak in Soho, London, in 1854. Oxford University researchers state that Snow's findings inspired the adoption of anaesthesia as well as fundamental changes in the water and waste systems of London, which led to similar changes in other cities, and a significant improvement in general public health around the world.[2]

Early life and education

Snow was born on 15 March 1813 in York, England, the first of nine children born to William and Frances Snow in their North Street home, and was baptised at All Saints' Church, North Street, York. His father was a labourer[3] who worked at a local coal yard, by the Ouse, constantly replenished from the Yorkshire coalfield by barges, but later was a farmer in a small village to the north of York.[4]

The neighbourhood was one of the poorest in the city, and was frequently in danger of flooding because of its proximity to the River Ouse. Growing up, Snow experienced unsanitary conditions and contamination in his hometown. Most of the streets were unsanitary and the river was contaminated by runoff water from market squares, cemeteries and sewage.[5]

From a young age, Snow demonstrated an aptitude for mathematics. In 1827, when he was 14, he obtained a medical apprenticeship with William Hardcastle in the area of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. In 1832, during his time as a surgeon-apothecary apprentice, he encountered a cholera epidemic for the first time in Killingworth, a coal-mining village.[6] Snow treated many victims of the disease thus and gained experience. Additionally, while he was an apprentice, Snow could not drink, gamble or marry. Eventually he adjusted to teetotalism and led a life characterized by abstinence, signing an abstinence pledge in 1835. Snow was also a vegetarian and tried to only drink distilled water that was “pure”.[5] Between 1833 and 1836 Snow worked as an assistant to a colliery surgeon, first in Burnopfield, County Durham, and then in Pateley Bridge, West Riding of Yorkshire. In October 1836 he enrolled at the Hunterian school of medicine on Great Windmill Street, London.[7]

Career

In the 1830s, Snow's colleague at the Newcastle Infirmary was surgeon Thomas Michael Greenhow. Both surgeons worked together conducting research on England's cholera epidemics, both continuing to do so for many years.[8][9]

In 1837, Snow began working at the Westminster Hospital. Admitted as a member of the Royal College of Surgeons of England on 2 May 1838, he graduated from the University of London in December 1844 and was admitted to the Royal College of Physicians in 1850. Snow was a founding member of the Epidemiological Society of London which was formed in May 1850 in response to the cholera outbreak of 1849. By 1856, Snow and Greenhow's nephew, Dr. E.H. Greenhow were some of a handful of esteemed medical men of the society who held discussions on this "dreadful scourge, the cholera".[10][11][12]

In 1857, Snow made an early and often overlooked[13] contribution to epidemiology in a pamphlet, On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets.[14]

Anaesthesia

John Snow was one of the first physicians to study and calculate dosages for the use of ether and chloroform as surgical anaesthetics, allowing patients to undergo surgical and obstetric procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. He designed the apparatus to safely administer ether to the patients and also designed a mask to administer chloroform.[15] He personally administered chloroform to Queen Victoria when she gave birth to the last two of her nine children, Leopold in 1853 and Beatrice in 1857 and was still not yet knighted,[16] leading to wider public acceptance of obstetric anaesthesia. Snow published an article on ether in 1847 entitled On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether.[17] A longer version entitled On Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administration was published posthumously in 1858.[18]

After finishing his medical studies in the University of London, he earned his MD in 1844. Snow set up his practice at 54 Frith Street in Soho as a surgeon and general practitioner. John Snow contributed to a wide range of medical concerns including anaesthesiology. He was a member of the Westminster Medical Society, an organisation dedicated to clinical and scientific demonstrations. Snow gained prestige and recognition all the while being able to experiment and pursue many of his scientific ideas. He was a speaker multiple times at the society’s meetings and he also wrote and published articles. He was especially interested in patients with respiratory diseases and tested his hypothesis through animal studies. In 1841, he wrote, On Asphyxiation, and on the Resuscitation of Still-Born Children, which is an article that discusses his discoveries on the physiology of neonatal respiration, oxygen consumption and the effects of body temperature change.[19] Therefore, his interest in anaesthesia and breathing was evident since 1841 and beginning in 1843, Snow experimented with ether to see its effects on respiration.[5] Only a year after ether was introduced to Britain, in 1847, he published a short work titled, On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether, which served as a guide for its use. At the same time, he worked on various papers that reported his clinical experience with anaesthesia, noting reactions, procedures and experiments.

Though he thoroughly worked with ether as an anaesthetic, he never attempted to patent it; instead he continued to work and publish written works on his observations and research. Within two years after ether was introduced, Snow was the most accomplished anaesthetist in Britain. London’s principal surgeons suddenly wanted his assistance.[5]

John Snow studied chloroform as much as he studied ether, which was introduced in 1847 by James Young Simpson, a Scottish obstetrician. He realised that chloroform was much more potent and required more attention and precision when administering it. Snow first realised this with Hannah Greener, a 15-year-old patient who died on 28 January 1848 after a surgical procedure that required the cutting of her toenail. She was administered chloroform by covering her face with a cloth dipped in the substance. However, she quickly lost pulse and died. After investigating her death and a couple of deaths that followed, he realized that chloroform had to be administered carefully and published his findings in a letter to The Lancet.[5]

Obstetric anaesthesia

Snow’s work and findings were related to both anaesthesia and the practice of childbirth. His experience with obstetric patients was extensive and used different substances including ether, amylene and chloroform to treat his patients. However, chloroform was the easiest drug to administer. He treated 77 obstetric patients with chloroform. He would apply the chloroform at the second stage of labour and controlled the amount without completely putting the patients to sleep. Once the patient was delivering the baby, they would only feel the first half of the contraction and be on the border of unconsciousness, but not fully there. Regarding administration of the anaesthetic, Snow believed that it would be safer if another person that was not the surgeon applied it.[19]

The use of chloroform as an anaesthetic for childbirth was seen as unethical by many physicians and even the Church of England. However, on 7 April 1853, Queen Victoria asked John Snow to administer chloroform during the delivery of her eighth child. He then repeated the procedure for the delivery of her daughter three years later. Medical and religious acceptance of obstetrical anaesthesia came after in the 19th century.[5]

Cholera

{{Main|1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak}}

Snow was a skeptic of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases such as cholera and bubonic plague were caused by pollution or a noxious form of "bad air". The germ theory of disease had not yet been developed, so Snow did not understand the mechanism by which the disease was transmitted. His observation of the evidence led him to discount the theory of foul air. He first publicised his theory in an 1849 essay, On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,[20] followed by a more detailed treatise in 1855 incorporating the results of his investigation of the role of the water supply in the Soho epidemic of 1854.[21][22]

By talking to local residents (with the help of Reverend Henry Whitehead), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the Broad Street pump did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to disable the well pump by removing its handle (force rod). This action has been commonly credited as ending the outbreak, but Snow observed that the epidemic may have already been in rapid decline:

{{quote|There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it.[21]{{rp|51–52}}}}

Snow later used a dot map to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the Thames and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science of epidemiology.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}

Snow wrote:

{{quote|On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the [Broad Street] pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street-pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pumps which were nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street...

With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were 61 instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally...

The result of the inquiry, then, is, that there has been no particular outbreak or prevalence of cholera in this part of London except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump well.

I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St James's parish, on the evening of the 7th inst [7 September], and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day.|John Snow|letter to the editor of the Medical Times and Gazette{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}}}

Researchers later discovered that this public well had been dug only {{convert|3|ft|m|sigfig=1}} from an old cesspit, which had begun to leak faecal bacteria. The cloth nappy of a baby, who had contracted cholera from another source, had been washed into this cesspit. Its opening was originally under a nearby house, which had been rebuilt farther away after a fire. The city had widened the street and the cesspit was lost. It was common at the time to have a cesspit under most homes. Most families tried to have their raw sewage collected and dumped in the Thames to prevent their cesspit from filling faster than the sewage could decompose into the soil.[23]

Thomas Shapter had conducted similar studies and used a point-based map for the study of cholera in Exeter, seven years before John Snow, although this did not identify the water supply problem that was later held responsible.[24]

Political controversy

After the cholera epidemic had subsided, government officials replaced the Broad Street pump handle. They had responded only to the urgent threat posed to the population, and afterward they rejected Snow's theory. To accept his proposal would have meant indirectly accepting the fecal-oral route of disease transmission, which was too unpleasant for most of the public to contemplate.[25]

It wasn't until 1866 that William Farr, one of Snow's chief opponents, realized the validity of his diagnosis when investigating another outbreak of cholera at Bromley by Bow and issued immediate orders that unboiled water was not to be drunk.[26]

Farr denied Snow's explanation of how exactly the contaminated water spread cholera, although he did accept that water had a role in the spread of the illness. In fact, some of the statistical data that Farr collected helped promote John Snow's views.[27]

Public health officials recognise the political struggles in which reformers have often become entangled.[28] During the Annual Pumphandle Lecture in England, members of the John Snow Society remove and replace a pump handle to symbolise the continuing challenges for advances in public health.[29]

Later life

In 1830 Snow became a member of the Temperance Movement, and lived for a decade or so as a vegetarian and teetotaler. In the mid-1840s his health deteriorated, and he returned to meat-eating and drinking wine. He continued drinking pure water (via boiling) throughout his adult life. He never married.[30]

Snow lived at 18 Sackville Street, London, from 1852 to his death in 1858.[31]

Snow suffered a stroke while working in his London office on 10 June 1858. He was 45 years old at the time.[32] He never recovered, dying on 16 June 1858. He was buried in Brompton Cemetery.[33]

Legacy and honours

  • A plaque commemorates Snow and his 1854 study in the place of the water pump on Broad Street (now Broadwick Street). It shows a water pump with its handle removed. The spot where the pump stood is covered with red granite.
  • A public house nearby was named "The John Snow" in his honour.[34]
  • The John Snow Society is named in his honour, and the society regularly meets at The John Snow pub. An annual Pumphandle Lecture is delivered each September by a leading authority in contemporary public health.
  • His grave in Brompton Cemetery, London, is marked by a funerary monument.
  • In York a blue plaque on the west end of the Park Inn, a hotel in North Street, commemorates John Snow.
  • Together with fellow pioneer of anaesthesia Joseph Thomas Clover, Snow is one of the heraldic supporters of the Royal College of Anaesthetists.[35]
  • The Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland awards The John Snow Award, a bursary for undergraduate medical students undertaking research in the field of anaesthesia.
  • Despite reports that Snow was awarded a prize by the Institut de France for his 1849 essay on cholera,[36] a 1950 letter from the Institut indicates that he received only a nomination for it.[37]
  • In 1978 a public health research and consulting firm, John Snow, Inc, was founded.
  • In 2001 the John Snow College was founded on the University of Durham's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees.
  • In 2009, the John Snow lecture theatre was opened by HRH The Princess Royal at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.
  • In 2013 The Lancet printed a correction of its brief obituary of Snow, originally published in 1858: "The journal accepts that some readers may wrongly have inferred that The Lancet failed to recognise Dr Snow's remarkable achievements in the field of epidemiology and, in particular, his visionary work in deducing the mode of transmission of epidemic cholera."[38]
  • In 2016, Katherine Tansley published a fictionalised account based on Snow's activities, in her historical novel The Doctor of Broad Street (Troubadour Books).
  • In 2017 York Civic Trust erected a memorial to John Snow in the form of a pump with its handle removed, a blue plaque and an interpretation board, in North Street Gardens, York, close to his birthplace.
  • The 2016 TV series Victoria, in the 3rd season, Episode 4 "Foreign Bodies", John Snow meets the Queen Victoria (no date mentioned but this happened in 1854) and with the Queens help, has the local authorities remove the Broad Street pump handle. (They did not mention his 1853 use of chloroform on the Queen for childbirth.)

See also

  • William Budd, recognized that cholera was contagious
  • The Ghost Map, book on cholera epidemiology
  • Florence Nightingale, founder of modern nursing
  • Filippo Pacini, isolated cholera
  • Joseph Bazalgette, sewer engineer for London
{{clear}}

References

1. ^{{Cite encyclopedia |title=John Snow |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Snow-British-physician |accessdate=2018-03-12 |date=2018-03-08}}
2. ^{{cite web |last1=Brody |first1=H. |title=Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine: A Life of John Snow |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=_93j18W7cvwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=John++snow++St++Thomas's++hospital&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4uYKilovhAhVRVXwKHQd4BBEQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=John%20%20snow%20%20St%20%20Thomas's%20%20hospital&f=false |publisher=Oxford University Press, 1 May 2003 |accessdate=18 March 2019 |quote=A Life of John Snow Peter Vinten-Johansen, Howard Brody, Nigel Paneth, Stephen ... The senior surgeon was Thomas Michael Greenhow (1792–1881)....Consider also T. M. Greenhow: “When patients rally from collapse, it is often most difficult to ascertain on what causes....}}
3. ^Wedding Record of William Snow and Frances Empson, Huntington All Saints, 24/05/1812
4. ^Census 1841
5. ^1 2 3 4 5 {{Cite journal |pmc=1325279 |title=John Snow, MD: anaesthetist to the Queen of England and pioneer epidemiologist |journal=Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center) |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=24–28 |last=Ramsay |first=Michael A.E. |date=January 6, 2009 |pmid=16424928 |doi=10.1080/08998280.2006.11928120 }}
6. ^{{Cite journal |last=Ball |first=Laura |year=2009 |title=Cholera and the Pump on Broad Street: The Life and Legacy of John Snow |url= |journal= |volume= |pages= |via=}}
7. ^Thomas, KB. John Snow. In: Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol 12. New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons; 1973:502–503.
8. ^{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=D. |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=sgkkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT53&dq=john++snow++thomas++greenhow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjM7YzcsYrhAhXaWysKHfLOAvcQ6AEIQzAF#v=onepage&q=john%20%20snow%20%20thomas%20%20greenhow&f=false |title=Water-Supply and Public Health Engineering| publisher=Routledge, 15 May 2017 |accessdate=18 March 2019|quote=....Dr T.M. Greenhow, a Newcastle colleague of Dr John Snow, had published: Cholera: its non–contagious nature, and the best means of arresting its progress shortly ...}}
9. ^{{cite web |last1=Brody |first1=H. |title=Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine: A Life of John Snow |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=_93j18W7cvwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=John++snow++St++Thomas's++hospital&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4uYKilovhAhVRVXwKHQd4BBEQ6AEILDAB#v=onepage&q=John%20%20snow%20%20St%20%20Thomas's%20%20hospital&f=false |publisher=Oxford University Press, 1 May 2003 |accessdate=18 March 2019 |quote=A Life of John Snow Peter Vinten-Johansen, Howard Brody, Nigel Paneth, Stephen ... The senior surgeon was Thomas Michael Greenhow (1792–1881)....Consider also T. M. Greenhow: “When patients rally from collapse, it is often most difficult to ascertain on what causes....}}
10. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/LESociety.html |title=London Epidemiology Society |publisher=UCLA |accessdate=22 October 2012}}
11. ^{{cite web |title=The Lancet London: A Journal of British and Foreign Medicine ..., Volume 1... Epidemiological Society |url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=kxRAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA167&dq=queen++victoria++john++snow++greenhow&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjxo5WW9IrhAhURXHwKHR1fAds4ChDoAQgyMAI#v=onepage&q=queen%20%20victoria%20%20john%20%20snow%20%20greenhow&f=false |publisher=Elsevier, 1856 |accessdate=18 March 2018 |page=167 |quote=The following members of the Epidiological Society (10 gentleman) took part in the discussion....Drs. Snow, Greenhow...}}
12. ^{{cite web |last1=Frerichs |first1=R. |title=London Epidemiological Society |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/LESociety.html |publisher=Depatment of Epidemiological (UCLA) |accessdate=18 March 2019 |quote=...dreadful scourge, the cholera ....Snow was q founding member of .....(Tucker's) stimulating words lead to a meeting on March 6, 1850 in Hanover Square, within walking distance of the Broad Street pump in the Soho region of London. It was here that the London Epidemiological Society was born.}}
13. ^{{Cite journal |last1=Dunnigan |first1=M. |title=Commentary: John Snow and alum-induced rickets from adulterated London bread: an overlooked contribution to metabolic bone disease |doi=10.1093/ije/dyg160 |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=340–1 |year=2003 |pmid=12777415 |pmc=}}
14. ^{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)21130-7 |title=On the Adulteration of Bread As a Cause of Rickets |journal=The Lancet |volume=70 |issue=1766 |pages=4 |year=1857 |last1=Snow |first1=J.}}
Reedited in {{Cite journal |doi=10.1093/ije/dyg153 |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/injepidemiology32_336_337_2003.pdf |pmid=12777413 |title=On the adulteration of bread as a cause of rickets |journal=International Journal of Epidemiology |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=336–7 |year=2003 |last1=Snow |first1=J.}}
15. ^John Snow (1813–58). sciencemuseum.org.uk
16. ^{{cite web |title=Anesthesia and Queen Victoria |work=John Snow |publisher=Department of Epidemiology UCLA School of Public Health |url=http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/victoria.html |accessdate=21 August 2007}}
17. ^Snow, John (1847) On the Inhalation of the Vapor of Ether. ph.ucla.edu
18. ^Snow, John (1858) [https://archive.org/details/onchloroformothe1858snow On Chloroform and Other Anaesthetics and Their Action and Administration]. London: John Churchill
19. ^1 {{Cite web |url=http://anesthesiology.pubs.asahq.org/article.aspx?articleid=1945835#81074985 |title=John Snow’s Practice of Obstetric Anesthesia |last=Caton |first=Donald |date=January 2000 |website= |access-date=}}
20. ^{{ cite book | last=Snow | first=John | author-link=John Snow | year=1849 | title=On the Mode of Communication of Cholera | place=London | publisher=John Churchill | url=https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/ext/cholera/PDF/0050707.pdf }}
21. ^1 {{ cite book | last=Snow | first=John | author-link=John Snow | year=1855 | title=On the Mode of Communication of Cholera | edition=2nd | place=London | publisher=John Churchill | url=https://archive.org/stream/b28985266#page/n3/mode/2up }}
22. ^{{cite book |author1=Gunn, S. William A. |author2=Masellis, Michele |title=Concepts and Practice of Humanitarian Medicine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1exE1cfKXIC&pg=PA87 |date=23 October 2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-387-72264-1 |pages=87–}}
23. ^{{Cite book |title=Seeing What Others Don't |last=Klein |first=Gary |publisher= |year= |isbn= |location= |pages=73}}
24. ^{{cite book |last1=Shapter |first1=Thomas |title=The History of the Cholera in Exeter in 1832 |date=1849 |publisher=John Churchill |location=London}}
25. ^Chapelle, Frank (2005) Wellsprings. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. {{ISBN|0-8135-3614-6}}. p. 82
26. ^{{cite book |last=Cadbury |first=Deborah |title=Seven Wonders of the Industrial World |year=2003 |accessdate= |publisher=Fourth Estate |location=London and New York |pages=189–192 |ref=harv}}
27. ^{{Cite journal |last=Eyler |first=John M. |date=April 1973 |title=William Farr on the Cholera: The Sanitarian's Disease Theory and the Statistician's Method |url= |journal=Journal of the History of Medicine |doi= |pmid=}}
28. ^Donaldson, L.J. and Donaldson, R.J. (2005) Essential Public Health. Radcliffe Publishing. {{ISBN|1-900603-87-X}}. p. 105
29. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.johnsnowsociety.org/annual-pumphandle-lecture.html |title=Pumphandle Lectures |work=johnsnowsociety.org |publisher=The John Snow Society |accessdate=1 May 2017}}
30. ^Snow, Stephanie J. (2004) "Snow, John (1813–1858)" in Oxford Dictionary of Biography
31. ^JOHN SNOW'S HOMES. UCLA Department of Epidemiology, 2014. Retrieved 6 June 2014.
32. ^{{cite book |last=Johnson |first=Steven |title=The Ghost Map |publisher=Riverhead Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-59448-925-4 |page=206}}
33. ^{{cite web |title=List of notable occupants |work=Brompton Cemetery |url=http://www.brompton.org/Residents.htm |format=HTTP |accessdate=21 August 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060823091118/http://www.brompton.org/Residents.htm |archivedate=23 August 2006 |df=}}
34. ^{{Cite episode |title=Birmingham |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b042zcqm |access-date=1 December 2016 |series=The 3rd Degree |author-link=Steve Punt |first=Steve |last=Punt |series-link=The 3rd Degree (radio series) |station=BBC Radio 4 |date=12 May 2014 |season=3 |number=6 |time=7:05}}
35. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.rcoa.ac.uk/about-the-college/armorial-bearings |title=The College Crest |publisher=The Royal College of Anaesthetists |date=2014 |accessdate=12 September 2014}}
36. ^{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t1exE1cfKXIC&pg=PA87&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+%22john+snow%22&hl=fr&ei=4Kx7TNabHdOeOM_xgdQG&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CEEQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22institut%20de%20france%22%20and%20%22john%20snow%22&f=false |title=Concepts and practice of humanitarian medicine |year=2008 |author1=S. William Gunn |author2=M. Masellis |isbn=0-387-72263-7}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=NSHXLkgFBBQC&pg=PA290&dq=%22institut+de+france%22+and+snow&hl=fr&ei=0Kd7TLfkGMSOOIrs2a4P&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBA]
37. ^{{cite journal |vauthors=Couvrier R, Edwards G |title=John Snow and the Institute of France |pmc=1034490 |journal=Med Hist |date=July 1959 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=249–251 |doi=10.1017/s0025727300024662}}
38. ^{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60830-2 |title=John Snow |journal=The Lancet |volume=381 |issue=9874 |pages=1269 |year=2013 |last1=Hempel |first1=S.}}

Sources

  • Hempel, Sandra (2006). The Medical Detective: John Snow, Cholera, and the Mystery of the Broad Street Pump. Granta Books. {{ISBN|1862078424}}
  • Johnson, Steven (2006). The Ghost Map: The Story of London's Most Terrifying Epidemic – and How it Changed Science, Cities and the Modern World. Riverhead Books. {{ISBN|1-59448-925-4}}
  • Körner, T. W. (1996). The Pleasures of Counting, chapter 1. Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-56823-4}}
  • Morris, Robert D. (2007). The Blue Death. Harper Collins. {{ISBN|0-06-073089-7}}
  • Shapin, Steven (6 November 2006) [Electronic version]. " ". The New Yorker. Retrieved 10 November 2006
  • Tufte, Edward (1997). Visual Explanations, chapter 2. Graphics Press. {{ISBN|0-9613921-2-6}}
  • Vinten-Johansen, Peter, et al. (2003). Cholera, Chloroform, and the Science of Medicine: A Life of John Snow. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-513544-X}}

External links

{{Commons|John Snow (physician)}}{{DNB poster|Snow, John}}
  • Short narrative film about John Snow
  • UCLA site devoted to the life of John Snow
  • Myth and reality regarding the Broad Street pump
  • John Snow Society
  • Source for Snow's letter to the Editor of the Medical Times and Gazette
  • Interactive versions of the John Snow's Map of Board Street Cholera Outbreak
    • [https://web.archive.org/web/20091022114348/https://www.umapper.com/maps/view/id/43438 umapper]
    • arcgis
  • [https://archive.is/20130201020638/http://www.r-bloggers.com/john-snow%E2%80%99s-famous-cholera-analysis-data-in-modern-gis-formats/ John Snow’s cholera analysis data in modern GIS formats]
  • [https://www.edx.org/course/predictionx-john-snow-cholera-epidemic-harvardx-soc1-jsx PredictionX: John Snow and the Cholera Epidemic of 1854 (a Harvard/edX MOOC)]
  • The John Snow Archive and Research Companion
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17 : Public health in the United Kingdom|1813 births|1858 deaths|English anaesthetists|Burials at Brompton Cemetery|Cholera|19th-century English medical doctors|Alumni of Westminster Hospital Medical School|English temperance activists|British public health doctors|People from York|19th-century English people|Water supply and sanitation in London|19th-century English writers|English male writers|19th-century British male writers|Environmental health practitioners
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