| 词条 | Condylarth |
| 释义 |
| name = Condylarths | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|66.5|23|Late Cretaceous – Oligocene, 66.5–23 Ma}} |image = Arctocyon DB.jpg |image_caption=Arctocyon, a plantigrade condylarth | regnum = Animalia | phylum = Chordata | classis = Mammalia | infraclassis = Eutheria | superordo = Laurasiatheria? | ordo = †Condylarthra | ordo_authority = {{Harvnb|Cope|1881}} | subdivision_ranks = Families | subdivision =
}}Condylarthra is an informal group – previously considered an order – of extinct placental mammals, known primarily from the Paleocene and Eocene epochs.[1] They are considered early, primitive ungulates. It is now largely considered to be a wastebasket taxon, having served as a dumping ground for classifying ungulates which had not been clearly established as part of either Perissodactyla or Cetartiodactyla, being composed thus of several unrelated lineages.[2][3][4] Taxonomic historyCondylarthra always was a problematic group. When Condylarthra was first described by {{Harvnb|Cope|1881}}, Phenacodontidae was the type and only family therein. {{Harvnb|Cope|1885}}, however, raised Condylarthra to an order and included a wide range of diverse placentals with generalized dentitions and postcranial skeletons. More recent researchers (i.e. post-WW2) have been more restrictive; either including only a limited number of taxa, or proposing that the term should be abandoned altogether.[5] Due to their primitive characteristics condylarths have been considered ancestral to several ungulate orders, including the living Artiodactyla, Cetacea, Perissodactyla, Hyracoidea, Sirenia, and Proboscidea, as well as the extinct Desmostylia, Embrithopoda, Liptopterna, Notoungulata, and Astrapotheria.[6] {{Harvnb|Prothero|Manning|Fischer|1988}} delimited condylarths as those having the following characters, but lacking the specializations present in more derived orders:[5]
Evolutionary historyThe disappearance of the dinosaurs opened up an ecological niche for large mammalian herbivores. Some condylarths evolved to fill the niche, while others remained insectivorous. This may explain, in part, the tremendous evolutionary radiation of the condylarths that we can observe throughout the Paleocene, resulting in the different groups of ungulates (or "hoofed mammals") that form the dominant herbivores in most Cenozoic animal communities on land, except on the island continent of Australia. Among recent mammals, Paenungulata (hyraxes, elephants, and sea cows), Perissodactyla (horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs), Artiodactyla (pigs, deer, antelope, cows, camels, hippos, and their relatives), Cetacea (whales), and Tubulidentata (aardvarks) are traditionally regarded as members of the Ungulata.[1][7] Besides these, several extinct animals also belong to this group, especially the endemic South American orders of ungulates, (Meridiungulata). Although many ungulates have hoofs, this feature does not define the Ungulata. Indeed, some condylarths had small hoofs on their feet, but the most primitive forms are clawed. Recent molecular and DNA research has reorganised the picture of mammalian evolution. Paenungulates and tubulidentates are seen as afrotherians, and no longer seen as closely related to the laurasiatherian perissodactyls, artiodactyls, and cetaceans,[8][9] implying that hooves were acquired independently (i.e. were analogous) by at least two different mammalian lineages, once in the Afrotheria and once in the Laurasiatheria. Condylarthra itself, therefore, is polyphyletic: the several condylarth groups are not closely related to each other at all. Indeed, Condylarthra is sometimes regarded as a 'wastebasket' taxon.[10] True relationships remain in many cases unresolved. In addition to meridiungulates and living ungulates, a condylarthran ancestry has been proposed for several other extinct groups of mammals, including Mesonychia[11] and Dinocerata.[12] Taxonomy{{div col}}
See also{{Commons category|Condylarthra}}
Notes{{More citations needed|date=January 2010}}1. ^1 {{Harvnb|McKenna|Bell|1997}} 2. ^{{cite web |url=http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/2013/08/08/phenacodontidae-i-feel-like-i-know-you/ |website=Tetrapod Zoology |publisher=Scientific American |title=Phenacodontidae, I feel like I know you |first=Darren |last=Naish |date=8 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310022530/http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/2013/08/08/phenacodontidae-i-feel-like-i-know-you/ |archivedate=10 March 2014}} 3. ^{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0109232| pmid = 25295875| title = Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls| journal = PLoS ONE| volume = 9| issue = 10| pages = e109232| date = 2014-10-08| last1 = Cooper | first1 = L. N. | last2 = Seiffert | first2 = E. R. | last3 = Clementz | first3 = M. | last4 = Madar | first4 = S. I. | last5 = Bajpai | first5 = S. | last6 = Hussain | first6 = S. T. | last7 = Thewissen | first7 = J. G. M.| ref = harv | pmc=4189980}} 4. ^{{Harvnb|Janis|1993}} 5. ^1 {{Harvnb|Thewissen|1990|p=20}} 6. ^{{cite book|last=Rose|first=Kenneth D.|title=The beginning of the Age of Mammals|year=2006|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore|isbn=9780801892219|chapter=Archaic Ungulates}} 7. ^{{Harvnb|Novacek|1986}} 8. ^{{Harvnb|Madsen|Scally|Douady|Kao|2001}} 9. ^{{Harvnb|Murphy|Eizirik|O'Brien|Madsen|2001}} 10. ^{{Harvnb|Janis|1993}} 11. ^{{Harvnb|Van Valen|1966}} 12. ^{{Harvnb|Van Valen|1988}} 13. ^Smith, De Bast. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/42568662 Reassessment of the Small ‘Arctocyonid’ Prolatidens waudruae from the Early Paleocene of Belgium, and Its Phylogenetic Relationships with Ungulate-Like Mammals]". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Retrieved August 2013 14. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Ravel | first1 = Anthony | last2 = Orliac | first2 = Maeva | year = 2014 | title = The inner ear morphology of the 'condylarthran' Hyopsodus lepidus | url = | journal = Historical Biology | volume = 27 | issue = 8| page = 8 | doi = 10.1080/08912963.2014.915823 }} 15. ^{{cite journal | last1 = Cooper | first1 = L. N. | last2 = Seiffert | first2 = E. R. | last3 = Clementz | first3 = M. | last4 = Madar | first4 = S. I. | last5 = Bajpai | first5 = S. | last6 = Hussain | first6 = S. T. | last7 = Thewissen | first7 = J. G. M. | year = 2014 | title = Anthracobunids from the Middle Eocene of India and Pakistan Are Stem Perissodactyls | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 10| page = e109232 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0109232 | pmid = 25295875 | pmc=4189980}} 16. ^{{cite journal |first1=J. David|last1=Archibald|first2=Yue|last2=Zhang|first3=Tony|last3=Harper|first4=Richard L.|last4=Cifelli|date= May 6, 2011|title=Protungulatum, confirmed Cretaceous occurrence of an otherwise Paleocene eutherian (placental?) mammal |journal=Journal of Mammalian Evolution |doi=10.1007/s10914-011-9162-1 |url=http://www.bio.sdsu.edu/faculty/archibald.html/ArchibaldEtAl.11JMEonline.pdf |accessdate=April 28, 2013 |volume=18 |issue=3|pages=153–161}} 17. ^James David Archibald · Alexander Olegovich Averianov, [https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/164/2/361/2627171 Phylogenetic analysis, taxonomic revision, and dental ontogeny of the Cretaceous Zhelestidae (Mammalia: Eutheria)], Article · Feb 2012 · Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society References{{Refbegin|30em}}
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