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词条 Chuvash language
释义

  1. Usage

  2. History

  3. Writing systems

     Current  1873–1938  Previous systems 

  4. Phonology

     Consonants  Vowels  Word accent 

  5. Dialects

  6. Morphology

     Nouns and adjectives  Verbs  Vowel harmony  Exceptions  Word order  Chuvash numbers 

  7. See also

  8. References

  9. External links

{{Distinguish|Chuvan language}}{{Infobox language
|name = Chuvash
|nativename = Чӑвашла, Căvašla, Çovaşla
|pronunciation = {{IPA|[tɕəʋaʂˈla]}}
|states = Russia
|region = Chuvashia and adjacent areas
|nation = {{Flag|Russia}}
  • {{Flag|Chuvashia}}

|ethnicity = Chuvash
|speakers = 1,042,989
|date = 2010 census
|ref =[1]
|familycolor = Altaic
|fam1 = Turkic
|fam2 = Oghur (Lir)
|ancestor = Bulgar
|script=Cyrillic
|iso1=cv
|iso2=chv
|iso3=chv
|glotto=chuv1255
|glottorefname=Chuvash
|notice=IPA
}}

Chuvash ({{IPAc-en|tʃ|ʊ|ˈ|v|ɑː|ʃ}}; {{lang|cv|Чӑвашла}}, {{lang|cv-Latn|Căvašla}}, {{lang|cv-Latn|Çovaşla}}; {{IPA-cv|tɕəʋaʂˈla|IPA}})[2] is a Turkic language spoken in European Russia, primarily in the Chuvash Republic and adjacent areas. It is the only surviving member of the Oghur branch of Turkic languages. Because of this, Chuvash has diverged considerably from the other Turkic languages, which typically demonstrate mutual intelligibility among one another to varying degrees.

The writing system for the Chuvash language is based on the Cyrillic script, employing all of the letters used in the Russian alphabet and adding four letters of its own: Ӑ, Ӗ, Ҫ and Ӳ.

Usage

Chuvash is the native language of the Chuvash people and an official language of Chuvashia.[3][4] It is spoken by 1,640,000 persons in Russia and another 34,000 in other countries.[5] 86% of ethnic Chuvash and 8% of the people of other ethnicities living in Chuvashia claimed knowledge of Chuvash language during the 2002 census.[6] Despite that, and although Chuvash is taught at schools and sometimes used in the media, it is considered endangered,[7][8] because Russian dominates in most spheres of life, and few children learning the language are likely to become active users.

A fairly significant production and publication of literature in Chuvash still continues. According to UNESCO's Index Translationum, at least 202 books translated from Chuvash were published in other languages (mostly Russian) since ca. 1979.[9] However, as with most other languages of the former USSR, most of the translation activity took place before the dissolution of the USSR: out of the 202 translations, 170 books were published in the USSR,[10] and just 17, in the post-1991 Russia (mostly, in the 1990s).[11] A similar situation takes place with the translation of books from other languages (mostly Russian) into Chuvash (the total of 175 titles published since ca. 1979, but just 18 of them in post-1991 Russia).[12]

History

Chuvash is the most distinctive of the Turkic languages and cannot be understood by speakers of other Turkic tongues. Chuvash is classified, alongside the extinct language Bulgar, as the only remaining member of the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family. Since the surviving literary records for the non-Chuvash members of Oghuric are scant, the exact position of Chuvash within the Oghuric family cannot be determined.

The Oghuric branch is distinguished from the rest of the Turkic family (the Common Turkic languages) by two sound changes: r corresponding to Common Turkic z, and l corresponding to Common Turkic ş.[13]

Formerly, scholars considered Chuvash not properly a Turkic language at all but, rather, a Turkicised Finno-Ugric (Uralic) language.[14] Already the first scientific fieldwork mission to record Chuvash, by August Ahlqvist in 1856, however established its correct affiliation.[15]

Writing systems

Current

А аӐ ӑБ бВ вГ гД дЕ еЁ ё
Ӗ ӗЖ жЗ зИ иЙ йК кЛ лМ м
Н нО оП пР рС сҪ ҫТ тУ у
Ӳ ӳФ фХ хЦ цЧ чШ шЩ щЪ ъ
Ы ыЬ ьЭ эЮ юЯ я
Name IPA Latin script (CVLat and Turkish-Based)[16] Notes
А а}} аa}}~{{IPAslink|ɑ}} a
Ӑ ӑ}} ӑə}}, {{IPAslink|ɒ}} ă/o a'
Б б}} бӑb}} b only in loanwords from Russian
В в}} вӑʋ}}~{{IPAslink|w}}, {{IPAslink|v}} (in non-chuvash loanwords) v
Г г}} гӑɡ}} g only in loanwords from Russian
Д д}} дӑd}} d only in loanwords from Russian
Е е}} еɛ}} e, je/ye
Ё ё}} ё{{IPA|/{{IPAplink|j}}{{IPAplink|o}}/}}}} or {{nowrap|{{IPA|/{{IPAplink|ʲ}}{{IPAplink|o}}/}}}} jo/yo only in loanwords from Russian
Ӗ ӗ}} ӗɘ}} (ɘ~ø) ĕ/ö e'
Ж ж}} жӑʐ}} ž/j only in loanwords from Russian
З з}} зӑz}} z only in loanwords from Russian
И и}} иi}} i/İ i
Й й}} йӑj}} j/y
К к}} кӑk}}, {{IPA|/kʲ/}} (c), {{IPA|/k̬ʲ/}} (gʲ, ɟ) k
Л л}} лӑl}}~{{IPAslink|ɫ}}, {{IPA|/lʲ/}} (ʎ) l, lĭ/l' l'
М м}} мӑm}} m
Н н}} нӑn}}, {{IPA|/nʲ/}} (ɲ) n, nĭ/n' n'
О о}} оo}} o only in loanwords from Russian
П п}} пӑp}}, {{IPA|/p̬/}} (b) p
Р р}} рӑr}}~{{IPAslink|ɾ}} r r'
С с}} сӑs}}, {{IPA|/s̬/}} (z) s
Ҫ ҫ}} ҫӑɕ}}, {{IPA|/ɕ̬/}} (ʑ) ş/c s'
Т т}} тӑt}}, {{IPA|/tʲ/}}, {{IPA|/t̬ʲ/}} (dʲ), {{IPA|/t̬/}} (d) t, tĭ/t'
У у}} уu}}, {{IPA|/̯u/}} (o) u
Ӳ ӳ}} ӳy}} ü u'
Ф ф}} фӑf}}, {{IPA|/̯f̬/}} (v) f only in loanwords from Russian
Х х}} хӑχ}}, {{IPA|/χʲ/}}, {{IPA|/χ̃/}} (ɣ), {{IPA|/χ̃ʲ/}} (ɣʲ) h/x
Ц ц}} цӑts}}, {{IPA|/ʦ̬/}} (dz) ts only in loanwords from Russian
Ч ч}} чӑtɕ}}, {{IPA|/ʨ̬/}} (ʥ) c/ç
Ш ш}} шӑʂ}}, {{IPA|/ʂ̬/}} (ʐ) š/ş
Щ щ}} щӑɕː}}
{{IPA|/{{IPAplink|ɕ}}{{IPAplink|t͡ɕ}}/}}		 šc/şç only in loanwords from Russian
Ъ ъ}} хытӑлӑх палли –j}} sound in front of the following iotified: Е, Ё, Ю, Я vowels with no palatalization of the preceding consonant
Ы ы}} ыɯ}} y/ı only in beginning of words, 1-2 letters
Ь ь}} ҫемҫелӗх паллиʲ}} ĭ/' Placed after a consonant, acts as a "silent front vowel", slightly palatalizes the preceding consonant
Э э}} эe}} e only first letter
Ю ю}} ю{{IPA|/{{IPAplink|j}}{{IPAplink|u}}/}}}} or {{nowrap|{{IPA|/{{IPA|ʲ}}{{IPAplink|u}}/}}}} ju/yu
Я я}} я/{{IPAplink|j}}{{IPAplink|a}}/}} or {{nowrap|{{IPA|/{{IPAplink|ʲ}}{{IPAplink|a}}/}}}} ja/ya

1873–1938

The modern Chuvash alphabet was devised in 1873 by school inspector Ivan Yakovlevich Yakovlev.[17]

а е ы и/і у ӳ ӑ ӗ й в к л ԡ м н ԣ п р р́ с ҫ т т̌ ђ х ш

In 1938, the alphabet underwent significant modification which brought it to its current form.

Previous systems

The most ancient writing system, known as the Old Turkic alphabet, disappeared after the Volga Bulgars converted to Islam. Later, the Arabic script was adopted. After the Mongol invasion, writing degraded. After Peter the Great's reforms Chuvash elites disappeared, blacksmiths and some other crafts were prohibited for non-Russian nations, the Chuvash were educated in Russian, while writing in runes recurred with simple folks.[18][19]

Phonology

Consonants

The consonants are the following (the corresponding Cyrillic letters are in brackets): The stops, sibilants and affricates are voiceless and fortes but become lenes (sounding similar to voiced) in intervocalic position and after liquids, nasals and semi-vowels. Аннепе sounds like annebe, but кушакпа sounds like kuzhakpa. However, geminate consonants do not undergo this lenition. Furthermore, the voiced consonants occurring in Russian are used in modern Russian-language loans. Consonants also become palatalized before and after front vowels.

BilabialLabiodentalAlveolarRetroflexAlveolo-palatalPalatalVelarUvular
Stopп {{IPAslink>p}}т {{IPAslink>t}}к {{IPAslink>k}}
Affricateч {{IPAslink>tɕ}}
Fricativec {{IPAslink>s}}ш {{IPAslink>ʂ}}ҫ {{IPAslink>ɕ}}x {{IPAslink>χ}}
Nasalм {{IPAslink>m}}н {{IPAslink>n}}
Approximantв {{IPAslink>ʋ}}л {{IPAslink>l}}й {{IPAslink>j}}
Trillp {{IPAslink>r}}

Vowels

According to Krueger (1961), the Chuvash vowel system is as follows (the precise IPA symbols are chosen based on his description since he uses a different transcription).

FrontBack
Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded
Highi}} {{angle bracket|и}}ӳ}}ɯ}} {{angle bracket|ы}}u}} {{angle bracket|у}}
Lowe}} {{angle bracket|е}}ø̆}} {{angle bracket|ӗ}}а}} {{angle bracket|а}}ŏ}} {{angle bracket|ӑ}}

András Róna-Tas (1997)[20] provides a somewhat different description, also with a partly idiosyncratic transcription. The following table is based on his version, with additional information from Petrov (2001). Again, the IPA symbols are not directly taken from the works so they could be inaccurate.

FrontBack
Unrounded Rounded Unrounded Rounded
Highi}} {{angle bracket|и}}y}} {{angle bracket|ӳ}}ɯ}} {{angle bracket|ы}}u}} {{angle bracket|у}}
Close-midӗ}} {{angle bracket|ĕ}}ɤ̆}} {{angle bracket|ӑ}}
Open-midɛ}} {{angle bracket|е}}
Lowa}} {{angle bracket|а}}

The vowels ӑ and ӗ are described as reduced, thereby differing in quantity from the rest. In unstressed positions, they often resemble a schwa or tend to be dropped altogether in fast speech. At times, especially when stressed, they may be somewhat rounded and sound similar to {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/ø/}}.

Additionally, {{IPA|ɔ}} (о) occurs in loanwords from Russian where the syllable is unstressed in Russian.

Word accent

The usual rule given in grammars of Chuvash is that the last full (non-reduced) vowel of the word is stressed; if there are no full vowels, the first vowel is stressed.[21] Reduced vowels that precede or follow a stressed full vowel are extremely short and non-prominent. One scholar, Dobrovolsky, however, hypothesises that there is in fact no stress in disyllabic words in which both vowels are reduced.[22]

Dialects

There are two dialects of Chuvash:

  • Viryal, or Upper (which has both o and u), and
  • Anatri, or Lower (which has u for both o and u: up. totă "full", tută "taste" – lo. tută "full, taste" ).

The literary language is based on both the Lower and Upper dialects. Both Tatar and the neighbouring Uralic languages such as Mari have influenced the Chuvash language, as have Russian, Mongolian, Arabic and Persian, which have all added many words to the Chuvash lexicon.

Morphology

As characteristic of all Turkic languages, Chuvash is an agglutinative language and as such, has an abundance of suffixes but no native prefixes or prepositions, apart from the partly reduplicative intensive prefix, such as in: шурӑ - white, шап-шурӑ - snow-white, хура - black, хуп-хура - jet black, такӑр - flat, так-такӑр - absolutely flat, тулли - full, тӑп-тулли - chock full (compare to Turkish beyaz - white, bem-beyaz snow-white, kara - black, kap-kara - jet black, düz - flat, dümdüz - absolutely flat, dolu - full, dopdolu - chock full). One word can have many suffixes, which can also be used to create new words like creating a verb from a noun or a noun from a verbal root. See Vocabulary below. It can also indicate the grammatical function of the word.

Nouns and adjectives

Chuvash nouns can take endings indicating the person of a possessor. They can take case-endings. There are six noun cases in the Chuvash declension system:

Grammatical case:

  • Nominative -
  • Possessive (of), after consonants: -ӑн/-ӗн, after vowels: -н according to the vowel harmony
  • Dative-Accusative (for), after consonants: -а/-е, after vowels: -на/-не according to the vowel harmony
  • Locative (in, on), formed by adding -ра/-ре, -та/-те according to the vowel harmony
  • Ablative (from), formed by adding -ран/-рен, -тан/-тен according to the vowel harmony
  • Instrumental (with), formed by adding -па(лан)/-пе(лен) according to the vowel harmony
  • Abessive (without), formed by adding -сӑр/-сӗр according to the vowel harmony
  • Causative, formed by adding -шӑн/-шӗн according to the vowel harmony

Plural:

  • Nominative: -сем
  • Possessive: -сен
  • Dative-Accusative: -сене
  • Locative: -сенче
  • Ablative: -сенчен
  • Instrumental: -семпе
  • Abessive: -семсĕр
  • Causative: -семшĕн

Also:

  • Terminative–antessive (to), formed by adding -(ч)чен
  • relic of distributive, formed by adding -серен: кунсерен "daily, every day", килсерен "per house", килмессерен "every time one comes"
  • Semblative (as), formed by adding пек to pronouns in genitive or objective case (ман пек "like me", сан пек "like you", ун пек "like him, that way", пирӗн пек "like us", сирӗн пек "like you all", хам пек "like myself", хӑвӑн пек "like yourself", кун пек "like this"); adding -ла, -ле to nouns (этемле "humanlike", ленинла "like Lenin")
  • Postfix: ха (ha)

Adjective:

  • Comparative: -рах/-рех

Verb:

  • Infinitive: -ма(лла|лли|лăх)/-ме(лле|лли|лĕх), negative postfix мар
  • Gerund (-ing): positive -ни, negative -манни/-менни
  • Conditional mood if: -са(сă)н/-се(сĕ)н, negative -маса(сă)н/-месе(сĕ)н, even if: -са(сă)н та/-се(сĕ)н те, negative -маса(сă)н та/-месе(сĕ)н те

Taking кун (day) as an example:

Noun case Chuvash English
Nominative кун day, or the day
Possessive кунӑн of the day
Dative-Accusative куна to the day
Locative кунта in the day
Ablative кунтан of the day, or from the day
Instrumental кунпа with the day

Possession is expressed by means of constructions based on verbs meaning "to exist" and "not to exist" ("пур" and "ҫук"). For example, to say, "My cat had no shoes":

{{lang|cv|кушак + -ӑн ура атӑ(и) + -сем ҫук + -ччӗ}}

{{lang|cv|(кушакӑн ура аттисем ҫукччӗ)}}

which literally translates as "cat-mine-of foot-cover(of)-plural-his non-existent-was."

Verbs

Chuvash verbs exhibit person and can be made negative or impotential; they can also be made potential. Finally, Chuvash verbs exhibit various distinctions of tense mood, and aspect: a verb can be progressive, necessitative, aorist, future, inferential, present, past, conditional, imperative or optative.

Chuvash English
кил-(to) come
килме-not (to) come
килейме-not (to) be able to come
килейменShe (or he) was apparently unable to come.
килеймерӗShe had not been able to come.
килеймерӗрYou (plural) had not been able to come.
килеймерӗр-и?Have you (plural) not been able to come?

Vowel harmony

Vowel harmony is the principle by which a native Chuvash word generally incorporates either exclusively back or hard vowels (а, ӑ, у, ы) and exclusively front or soft vowels (е, ӗ, ӳ, и). As such, a notation for a Chuvash suffix such as -тен means either -тан or -тен, whichever promotes vowel harmony; a notation such as -тпӗр means either -тпӑр, -тпӗр, again with vowel harmony constituting the deciding factor.

Chuvash has two classes of vowels: front and back (see the table above). Vowel harmony states that words may not contain both front and back vowels. Therefore, most grammatical suffixes come in front and back forms, e.g. Шупашкарта "in Cheboksary" but килте "at home".

Two vowels cannot occur in succession.

Exceptions

Compound words are considered separate words with respect to vowel harmony: vowels do not have to harmonize between members of the compound (so forms like сӗтел|пукан "furniture" are permissible). In addition, vowel harmony does not apply for loanwords and some invariant suffixes (such as -ӗ); there are also a few native Chuvash words that do not follow the rule (such as анне "mother"). In such words suffixes harmonize with the final vowel; thus Аннепе "with the mother".

Word order

Word order in Chuvash is generally subject–object–verb.

Chuvash numbers

  • 1 – пӗрре pĕrre, пӗр pĕr
  • 2 – иккӗ ikkĕ, икӗ ikĕ, ик ik
  • 3 – виҫҫӗ vişşĕ, виҫӗ vişĕ, виҫ viş
  • 4 – тӑваттӑ tăvattă, тӑватӑ tăvată, тӑват tăvat
  • 5 – пиллӗк pillĕk, пилӗк pilĕk
  • 6 – улттӑ ulttă {{IPA-cv|ˈultːə|IPA}}, ултӑ ultă {{IPA-cv|ˈult̬ə|IPA}}, улт ult {{IPA-cv|ult|IPA}}/{{IPA-cv|ult̬|IPA}}
  • 7 – ҫиччӗ şiccĕ {{IPA-cv|ˈɕitɕːɘ|IPA}}, ҫичӗ şicĕ {{IPA-cv|ˈɕitɕ̬ɘ|IPA}}, ҫич şic {{IPA-cv|ˈɕitɕ̬|IPA}}
  • 8 – саккӑр sakkăr {{IPA-cv|ˈsakːər|IPA}}, сакӑр sakăr {{IPA-cv|ˈsak̬ər|IPA}}
  • 9 – тӑххӑр tăhhăr, тӑхӑр tăhăr
  • 10 – вуннӑ vunnă, вун vun
  • 11 – вун пӗр vun pĕr
  • 12 – вун иккӗ vun ikkĕ, вун икӗ vun ikĕ, вун ик vun ik
  • 13 – вун виҫҫӗ vun vişşĕ, вун виҫӗ vun vişĕ, вун виҫ vun viş
  • 14 – вун тӑваттӑ vun tăvattă, вун тӑватӑ vun tăvată, вун тӑват vun tăvat
  • 15 – вун пиллӗк vun pillĕk, вун пилӗк vun pilĕk
  • 16 – вун улттӑ vun ulttă, вун ултӑ vun ultă, вун улт vun ult
  • 17 – вун ҫиччӗ vun şiccĕ, вун ҫичӗ vun şicĕ
  • 18 – вун саккӑр vun sakkăr, вун сакӑр vun sakăr
  • 19 – вун тӑххӑр vun tăhhăr, вун тӑхӑр vun tăhăr
  • 20 – ҫирӗм şirĕm
  • 30 – вӑтӑр vătăr
  • 40 – хӗрӗх hĕrĕh
  • 50 – аллӑ allă, алӑ ală, ал al
  • 60 – утмӑл utmăl
  • 70 – ҫитмӗл şitmĕl
  • 80 – сакӑрвуннӑ sakărvunnă, сакӑрвун sakărvun
  • 90 – тӑхӑрвуннӑ tăhărvunnă, тӑхӑрвун tăhărvun
  • 100 – ҫӗр şĕr
  • 1000 – пин pin
  • 834236 - сакӑр ҫӗр вӑтӑр тӑватӑ пин те ик ҫӗр вӑтӑр улттӑ sakăr şĕr vătăr tăvată pin te ik şĕr vătăr ulttă {{IPA-cv|ˌsakərɕɘrʋət̬ərt̬əʋat̬ə↗p̬inʲt̬eǀikɕɘrʋət̬ər↘ultːəǁ|IPA}}, сакӑр ҫӗр вӑтӑр тӑватӑ пин те ик ҫӗр вӑтӑр ултӑ sakăr şĕr vătăr tăvată pin te ik şĕr vătăr ultă

See also

  • Chuvash literature
  • Bulgar language
  • Cyrillic script
  • Oghur languages
  • Turkic Avar language
  • Turkic languages
  • Ivan Yakovlev

References

Specific
1. ^{{Cite web|url=Перепись-2010|title=Population of the Russian Federation by Languages (in Russian)|last=|first=|date=|website=gks.ru|publisher=Russian Bureau of Statistics|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|access-date=1 November 2017}}
2. ^also known as Chăvash, Chuwash, Chovash, Chavash, Çovaş, Çuvaş or Çuwaş
3. ^http://www.cv-haval.org/ru/node/54 Эктор Алос-и-Фонт. Оценка языковой политики в Чувашии
4. ^http://cvlat.blogspot.com/2010/11/blog-post.html Оценка языковой политики в Чувашии
5. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=chv|title=Chuvash|author=|date=|website=ethnologue.com|accessdate=21 March 2018}}
6. ^Russian Census 2002. 6. Владение языками (кроме русского) населением отдельных национальностей по республикам, автономной области и автономным округам Российской Федерации {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061104083616/http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/TOM_04_06.xls |date=4 November 2006 }}(Knowledge of languages other than Russian by the population of republics, autonomous oblast and autonomous districts){{ru icon}}
7. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.mt-archive.info/LREC-2006-Zheltov.pdf|title=Zheltov, Pavel. An Attribute-Sample Database System for Describing Chuvash Affixes|author=|date=|website=mt-archive.info|accessdate=21 March 2018}}
8. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_index.html |title=UNESCO red book on endangered languages: Europe |author=Tapani Salminen |date=22 September 1999 |work= |publisher= |accessdate=}}
9. ^Index Translationum: translations from Chuvash - shows 202 titles, as of 2013-01-06. The index has data since ca. 1979.
10. ^Index Translationum: translations from Chuvash, published in the USSR - shows 170 titles
11. ^Index Translationum: translations from Chuvash, published in Russia - shows 17 titles
12. ^Index Translationum: translations into Chuvash
13. ^Johanson (1998); cf. Johanson (2000, 2007) and the articles pertaining to the subject in Johanson & Csató (ed., 1998).
14. ^Encyclopædia Britannica (1997)
15. ^{{cite book|first=Mikko|last=Korhonen|year=1986|title=Finno-Ugrian Language Studies in Finland 1828-1918|location=Helsinki|publisher=Societas Scientiarum Fennica|isbn=951-653-135-0|page=80}}
16. ^{{cite web|url=https://en.chuvash.org/e/43687576617368204c6174696e20536372697074|title=Chuvash Latin Script|author=|date=|website=chuvash.org}}
17. ^{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1918/apr/20.htm |title=Telegram to the Chairman of the Simbirsk Soviet |accessdate=30 August 2010}}
18. ^{{cite web |url=http://nasledie.nbchr.ru/nasledie/yazyk/runicheskaja-pismennost |title=Древнечувашская руническая письменность |work=Трофимов А.А |publisher=Национальная библиотека Чувашской Республики}}
19. ^{{cite web |url=http://nasledie.nbchr.ru/nasledie/yazyk/ |title=Язык – основа национальной культуры|work=Э. Алос-и-Фонт. |publisher=Национальная библиотека Чувашской Республики}}
20. ^{{cite web|url=http://www.lingfil.uu.se/afro/turkiskasprak/IP2007/NUTSHELLCHUVASH.pdf |title=Nutshell Chuvash |author=András Róna-Tas |date= |work=Erasmus Mundus Intensive Program Turkic languages and cultures in Europe (TLCE) |publisher= |accessdate=31 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807192758/http://www2.lingfil.uu.se/afro/turkiskasprak/IP2007/NUTSHELLCHUVASH.pdf |archivedate=7 August 2011 |df=dmy }}
21. ^Dobrovolsky (1999), p. 539.
22. ^Dobrovolsky (1999), p. 541.
General
  • {{cite journal |url=http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/eeo/Tschuwaschisch.pdf |title=Tschuwaschisch. in: M. Okuka (ed.) |author=Čaušević, Ekrem |year=2002 |work=Lexikon der Sprachen des europäischen Ostens |volume=Enzyklopädie des europäischen Ostens 10 |pages=811–815 |publisher=Klagenfurt: Wieser |accessdate=31 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309025932/http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/eeo/Tschuwaschisch.pdf |archivedate=9 March 2006 |df=dmy-all }}
  • Dobrovolsky, Michael (1999). "The phonetics of Chuvash stress: implications for phonology". Proceedings of the XIV International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 539–542. Berkeley: University of California.
  • Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató, ed. (1998). The Turkic languages. London: Routledge.
  • {{cite web |url=http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/classification.html |title=The history of Turkic |author=Lars Johansen |year=1998 |work=Johanson & Csató |pages=81–125 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Online CD 98 |accessdate=5 September 2007}}
  • {{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80003/Turkic-languages |title=Turkic languages |author=Lars Johanson |year=1998 |work= |publisher= |accessdate= }}
  • {{cite web |url=http://www3.germanistik.uni-halle.de/antos/dgfs98/abstracts/johanson.htm |title=Linguistic convergence in the Volga area |author=Lars Johanson |year=2000 |work=Gilbers, Dicky & Nerbonne, John & Jos Schaeken (ed.) |publisher= Languages in contact Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi. |pages=165–178 (Studies in Slavic and General linguistics 28.), |accessdate= }}
  • Johanson, Lars (2007). Chuvash. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Elsevier.
  • {{cite book| title= Chuvash Manual| author=Krueger, John| publisher=Indiana University Publications| year=1961|id= }}
  • {{cite book | author=Paasonen, Heikki| title = Gebräuche und Volksdichtung der Tschuwassen| publisher = edited by E. Karabka and M. Räsänen (Mémoires de la Société Finno-ougrinenne XCIV), Helsinki| year= 1949 | id= }}
  • {{cite web |url=http://www.lib.cap.ru/date_apr_05_2.asp |title=Чувашская письменность новая |author=Петров, Н. П |year=2001 |work= |publisher=Краткая чувашская энциклопедия. – Чебоксары |pages=С. 475–476 |accessdate= }}
  • Эктор Алос-и-Фонт, «Преподавание чувашского языка и проблема языкового поведения родителей», Чувашский государственный институт гуманитарных наук, 2015, Cheboksary.

External links

{{InterWiki|code=cv}}
  • Скоро чувашский язык останется «какой-то культурной традицией»
  • Chuvash–Russian On-Line Dictionary
  • Chuvash English On-Line Dictionary
  • Chuvash People's Website {{en icon}}, also available in Chuvash, Esperanto and Russian
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20110807192758/http://www2.lingfil.uu.se/afro/turkiskasprak/IP2007/NUTSHELLCHUVASH.pdf Nutshell Chuvash, by András Róna-Tas]
  • [https://web.archive.org/web/20080409043651/http://www.lingfil.uu.se/afro/turkiskasprak/IP2007/Kincses.pdf Chuvash people and language by Éva Kincses Nagy, Istanbul Erasmus IP 1- 13. 2. 2007]
  • Chuvash manual online
  • Виталий Станьял: На чувашском конь еще не валялся...
  • Виталий Станьял: Решение Совета Аксакалов ЧНК
  • [https://chuvash.org/content/3156-Прощай%2C%20исчезающий%20чувашский%20язык%3F.html Прощай, исчезающий чувашский язык?]
  • [https://chuvash.org/news/17092.html Чăваш чĕлхине Страсбургра хӳтĕлĕç]
  • [https://chuvash.org/news/17162.html Тутарстанра чӗлхе пирки сӑмахларӗҫ]
  • [https://chuvash.org/content/3180-Об%20угрозе%20развала%20страны%20в%20будущем%2C%20о%20съезде%20ЧНК%2C%20и%20об%20обращении%20к%20президенту.html Владимир Болгарский. Об угрозе развала страны в будущем, о съезде ЧНК, и об обращении к президенту]
  • [https://www.idelreal.org/a/27902182.html Why don't Chuvash people speak Chuvash?]
  • [https://www.idelreal.org/a/29546401.html "As it is in the Chuvash Republic the Chuvash are not needed?!"]
{{Turkic languages}}{{Languages of Russia}}{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}}{{Authority control}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Chuvash Language}}

6 : Chuvash language|Agglutinative languages|Chuvash people|Languages of Russia|Vowel-harmony languages|Oghur languages
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